Microsoft Word Complete article [10] versie e-thesis[1]. doc

 

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those who have not attended university (Ford, 1960; Feldman, 1969), 

although a recent study by Jorm and Christensen (2004) reported that both 

the most and least religious groups tended to have a higher level of 

education.  It should also be pointed out that religiosity and paranormal 

beliefs show some differences in content (e.g. religious attendance) between 

the investigated cultures and nationalities  (e.g. UK, USA, Iceland, Belgium 

etc.), which may account for some of the variability in results found in the 

different studies. 

 

With respect to RPBS, Lange, Irwin and Houran (2000) recommend the 

removal of differential item functioning (DIF) by ‘top-down purification’, 

which left them with two correlated clusters of items dubbed ‘New Age 

Philosophy’ and ‘Traditional Paranormal Beliefs’, as resulting from a study 

conducted on an Australian sample.  They noted that cultural DIF might 

profitably be investigated. 

 

Another issue that could be adapted in this study was the use of the 50 item 

version of the NEO-PI-R lifted from the International Personality Item Pool 

(IPIP) when the use of the NEO-FFI may have been more appropriate, as it 

was the scale used in studies of the PCBS.  The use of the NEO-FFI would 

have maintained more consistency between the studies.  

 

In more general terms, a methodological concern has been brought to the 

attention in the social-personality literature regarding the use of paper and 

pencil questionnaire based studies.  Tentative evidence suggests that a 

‘context effect’ may occur when participants, who complete two or more 

questionnaires during the same session (as in our research), adjust their 

responses to items in all instruments, based on a perceived relationship 

between the constructs measured by those instruments (Council, 1993; 

Council, Kirsch, Waters and Grant, 1995; Council, Grant, Smith, Solberg, 

Mertz, Knudson, Titus, Long, and Kramer, 1996).  For example, when 

examining the relationship between paranormal belief and psychopathology, 

Council et al. (1995) found -as predicted by their hypothesis- no significant 

correlations when the questionnaires (the RPBS and the Symptom 

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Checklist-90-Reivised - SCL-90-R; Derogatis, 1983) were administered 

together.  But when the context was controlled (i.e. the questionnaires were 

presented as independent projects by different investigators 2 weeks apart), 

significant correlations emerged between the various subscales of 

psychopathology and paranormal belief (mean r = 0.26, N = 92). 

 

 

4.7 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 

 

There is plenty of scope for future research in the areas covered in this 

study, particularly the relationship between the two constructs of paranormal 

belief and religion, as this represents a first substantial exploratory 

investigation.  Thus, confirmation of this study will be necessary to 

corroborate the results found here.  The relationship between these beliefs 

and other religious beliefs such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Spirituality etc. 

could be investigated. 

 

In terms of personality factors, more research is needed in general and in 

particular of those factors involving the FFM.  Also, Saroglou (2002) has 

previously noted that (in reference to religious beliefs and personality 

factors, but this can also be applied to paranormal beliefs) further studies 

providing results on the facet level might reveal further important 

associations. 

 

The PCBS has already been used extensively in Belgium and has showed 

differential relationships with a number of variables, such as personality-

profiles (Peeters, 2003), racism (Duriez, 2002b, Duriez et al., 1999, 2000, 

2002; Duriez and Hutsebaut, 2000,), economic and cultural conservatism 

(Duriez et., 2002), authoritarianism and social dominance orientation (Duriz 

and Van Hiel, 2002), mental health (Luyten et al., 1998), and value 

orientations (Duriez et al., 2001; Fontaine et al., 2000).  All these studies 

could be repeated (and extended) using UK and other cross-cultural 

samples.  Additionally, Duriez et al. (2004) have introduced a shortened 

version of the PCBS consisting of 18 items, which has performed equally in 

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previous samples.  This too could be tested on UK and other cross-cultural 

samples. 

 

 

4.8 SUMMARY 

 

In summary then, this study showed that religious beliefs and paranormal 

beliefs are indeed associated, confirming initial exploratory studies that 

suggested some kind of relationship between the two (Goode, 2000; 

Haraldsson, 1981).  The other mixed results reflect the need for further 

research in both religiosity and in particular paranormal beliefs to see if a 

consistent pattern of results may emerge. 

 

© 

Huntley, C. , & Peeters, T. 2005.

  

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Appendices 

 

APPENDIX 1 

Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS), Tobayck 

(1988) 

 

Traditional Religious Beliefs 

1.  The soul continues to exist thought the body may die 

8.  There is a devil 

15.  I believe in God 

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