Searching For Common Roots This is a personal view on a connection between Polynesia

According to Sullivan, author of "The Secret of the Incas," the goal of the Inca organization was to stop time. In pre-Columbian America, there were many pagan traditions that foretold of their possible destruction. It was the task of their astronomer-priests to prevent that from happening, by appeasing the gods. According to Sullivan, when the Spaniards arrived in South America, the Inca and his people were convinced that gods visited them. That prediction played a role in their swift defeat in the hands of the Spaniards. According to their myth - the end had arrived with the white conquistadors. (14)
8. The Nephites were a record-keeping people
"...wherefore, Nephi gave me, Jacob, a commandment concerning the small plates, upon which these things are engraven. And he gave me, Jacob, a commandment that I should write upon these plates a few of the things which I considered to be most precious; that I should not touch, save it were lightly, concerning the history of this people which are called the people of Nephi. For he said that the history of his people should be engraven upon his other plates, and that I should preserve these plates and hand them down unto my seed, from generations to generation." (Jacob 1: 1 -3)
The Book of Mormon started out with a recount of Nephi's father's vision, which was the reason for them to take the arduous journey from the Middle East to the Americas. That vision was the start of Nephi's story. According to the story, other records that were possessed by a Laban contain sacred writings, genealogy, and some history that were important to Lehi. It's hard for us to appreciate the value of those records to Lehi, but it was important enough to him to send his sons into harm's way to retrieve them. Although there is an emerging interest in genealogical work today, it's still considered a hobby that is done by a few devotees. Genealogy in Samoa is more than a cursory interest. Elders passionately guard (15) their family genealogies.
Nephi wrote:
"..it is wisdom in God that we should obtain these records, that we may preserve unto our children the language of our fathers; And also that we may preserve unto them the words which have been spoken by the mouth of all the holy prophets, which have been delivered unto them by the Spirit and power of God, since the world began, even down unto this present time." (1 Nehpi 3: 19 - 20)
When the record was in Mormon's possession, it contained most of the recorded history of his people since they left the Middle East, about 1000 years before him. According to these records, there was an adventurous soul by the name of Hagoth who built large boats around 500 years before Mormon's time. He traveled with some people into the open sea. The record shows that some returned, but many were never heard from again. The record is silence on what happened to them. There were other later migrations into the north that the records had news of. The Nephites, as Mormon wrote, moved north and possessed places once possessed by others.
"Yea, and even they did spread forth into all parts of the land, into whatever parts it had not been rendered desolate and without timber, because of the many inhabitants who had before inherited the land" (Helaman 3: 5)
9. Why Hagoth?
The Nephite record mentions Hagoth as person responsible for the migration out of the established Nephite nation over open water. In all likelihood Hagoth never made it to any islands in the eastern Pacific. It could be someone else who made the trip and landed on the small Pacific islands. But, there are no records of any such person or group. Therefore, my reference to Hagoth generally speaks of a period mentioned in the Nephite record people moved out of the Nephite country over water.
That period roughly coincided with the arrival of peoples to the eastern most islands of the Pacific. My search also reveals similar words between the Samoan language of the middle Pacific and the Lakota language of the North American great plane. In that case, the Book of Mormon landscape includes all of North, Central and South America. Furthermore, if my assumption that a group from the Americas landed on islands in the Eastern Pacific is correct than that group would reflect facets of societies in pre-Columbus America.
10. Did Hagoth and his group kept records?
"And it came to pass that Hagoth, he being an exceedingly curious man, therefore he went forth and built him an exceedingly large ship, on the borders of the land Bountiful, by the land Desolation, and launched it forth into the west sea, by the narrow neck which led into the land northward. And behold, there were many of the Nephites who did enter therein and did sail forth with much provisions, and also many women and children; and they took their course northward. And thus ended the thirty and seventh year. And in the thirty and eighth year, this man built other ships. And the first ship did also return, and many more people did enter into it; and they also took much provisions, and set out again to the land northward. And it came to pass that they were never heard of more. And we suppose that they were drowned in the depths of the sea. And it came to pass that one other ship also did sail forth; and whither she did go we know not. And it came to pass that in this year there were many people who went forth into the land northward." (Alma 63: 5 - 9)
The story about Hagoth's exploits occurred after a long and vicious war between the Nephites and the Lamanites. It was during this war that we hear about Moroni, the celebrated leader of the Nephite army. I see this Moroni as an important figure in the lives of those I believe migrated out of the Nephite country soon after the war. It was during this story that we learn about Helaman and his two thousand Lamanite warriors. They built large fortifications during that war. After the war, the Nephites became prosperous again. We also find out that many Nephites and Lamanites co-existed peacefully during this period - 400 years before the annihilation of the Nephite nation.
"..the Lord did bless them, according to his word, so that they did wax strong and prosper in the land." (Alma 62: 51)
So we have a situation where people were able to build ships and venturing out into the open water. The fortifications built during the war provided an ample supply of wood for such projects. The labor pool was probably limited because of the war carnage, but working on those projects provided a diversion from the memories of the war. Many just wanted to move to places farther away from the enemy and to start new lives. The boating adventure was probably more appealing to the younger people. During the war, most able males were called to defend their country. With the war over, the ex-warriors were open to new adventures and new ideas. Hagoth gladly provided them with the ultimate diversion.
Based on the chronology of the Book of Mormon, the year Hagoth ventured out to the sea was probably around 55 BC. Evidence does point to Polynesians settling some of the islands around that time. But, the farther we go west (based on Lapita studies), the earlier the dates become of human habitation. The Lapita findings show a pattern of people migrating from Southeast Asia into Polynesia. However, that is mostly true if there was a homogenous outgrowth of colonization from Southeast Asia to the eastern islands of Polynesia. There are many other newer studies that show that that conclusion does not fully explain the complicated nature of Polynesian colonization. Today, there are at least three prominent theories concerning Polynesian migration.
"...launched it forth into the west sea, by the narrow neck which led into the land northward." (Alma 63: 6)
Several groups traveled northward along America's coastal west. Some of them returned, including Hagoth who built more ships and took more people out into the sea. An examination of the Zapotec language (west coastal Mexico) will show many words that resemble Polynesian words, both in spelling and meaning. While their preparations and departures are mentioned in Mormon's writing, no further reports of them beyond the shores are found in the Book of Mormon. They were assumed capsized and drowned. Were they capsized? Were they drowned in the sea? Mormon also recorded, in verse 9 of the 63rd Chapter of Alma, that there were other migrations to the northern land. Those migrations were not by boat and their stories are included in the Nephite records.
"And now there are many records kept of the proceedings of this people, by many of this people, which are particular and very large, concerning them. But behold, a hundredth part of the proceedings of this people, yea, the account of the Lamanites and of the Nephites, ... kept chiefly by the Nephites. And they have been handed down from one generation to another...until they are no more called Nephites, becoming wicked, and wild, and ferocious, yea, even becoming Lamanites." (Helaman 3: 13 - 16)
There were numerous records kept by the Nephites according to Mormon, which, unfortunately, lack information about what happened to Hagoth's group. Those who followed Hagoth had no further contacts with their Nephite kinfolk.
"And it came to pass that they were never heard of more. And we suppose that they were drowned in the depths of the sea." (Alma 63: 8)
Based on the Chronology of the Book of Mormon, Mormon gave his son, Moroni, the records around 400 A.D. According to Moroni, the Nephites were either killed or absorbed into the Lamanite people. Therefore, what documents he had in his possession were the sum of all the records starting from Nephi, who left Jerusalem. None of those records contains any information about the Hagoth group other than the brief mentioning in Alma, chapter 63.
The Nephites were a record-keeping people, but, unfortunately, Hagoth's company might not have anyone with writing ability. They didn't plan to be separated from their kinsman permanently, but were taking another route to the northern land. They might have had a good understanding of their traditions. The descendants of the Hagoth migration were separated from the rest of the Nephites.
11. Are the Polynesians descendants of the Hagoth migration?
"Years ago I compiled a large body of shared culture traits that indeed suggest historical links between those islands and various parts of the Americas (John L. Sorenson, "Evidences of Culture Contacts Between Polynesia and the Americas in Pre-Columbian Times", M.A. thesis, Brigham Young University, 1952), and this has been supplemented by others. Yet the evidence does not allow our pinning down any single time or place for a migration of trade that would persuasively explain the similarities. It remains impossible to demonstrate any clear-cut connection between the two areas, although debate continues. Those who choose to believe that Hagoth reached Polynesia must rely mainly on faith rather than on reliable evidence." ("Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon, John L. Sorenson,

Deseret Book Company, 1985)

Even some advocates of the Book of Mormon find it difficult to connect the Polynesians to the Hagoth story. If there are similarities between the Polynesians and pre-Columbian Americans, why is there a reluctance to make the connection between them? Why are those who are willing to accept inferences as tangible support for the Book of Mormon demand a higher standard when dealing with a connection between Polynesians and the Hagoth story?
Essentially, Sorenson's statement applies to most Book of Mormon migrations. No one has yet proven without a doubt where the Lehi family departed from and where they landed. Many are doing extensive work in this area, but it remains clear that the element of 'faith' is the basis for accepting the Book of Mormon stories.
Is it a mistake to connect the story of Jesus visiting America, as recorded in the Book of Mormon, to Polynesians too? In the Book of Mormon story, Jesus, while he was in America, said that he was visiting other groups.
"And verily, verily, I say unto you that I have other sheep, which are not of this land, neither of the land of Jerusalem, neither in any parts of that land round about whither I have been to minister. For they of whom I speak are they who have not as yet heard my voice; neither have I at any time manifested myself unto them. But I have received a commandment of the Father that I shall go unto them, and that they shall hear my voice, and shall be numbered among my sheep, that there may be one fold and one shepherd; therefore I go to show myself unto them." (3 Nephi 16: 1-3)
I've heard people saying that the Book of Mormon is an article of faith. However, the book exists, and it talks of a history that has to be understood. It's not enough for me to accept it on faith only, and not have some confidence to its truthfulness. If a person believes that God created unicorns - it is one thing to believe that there is a god - it's another thing to believe that unicorns exist. We don't know if unicorns exist, but we have the Book of Mormon with its stories that have to be accepted.
"Those islanders and the natives of this country are of the House of Israel, of the seed of Abraham" (President Brigham Young, 1858)
Laie Hawaii Temple Dedicatory Prayer Dedicated 27-30 November 1919, by Heber J. Grant
"O God, accept of the gratitude and thanksgiving of our hearts, for the very wonderful and splendid labors performed in the land of Hawaii by Thy servants President George Q. Cannon and Joseph F. Smith. We thank Thee for their devotion to the gospel and to the people of this land. We thank Thee for raising up Thy servant Elder J. H. Napela, that devoted Hawaiian, who assisted Thy servant President Cannon in the translation of the Book of Mormon, which is the sacred history of the Nephites, the Lamanites, and the Jaredites. We thank Thee that the plates containing the Book of Mormon were preserved so that they could be translated, and that Thy words to the Prophet Joseph Smith might be fulfilled; namely, "That the Lamanites might come to the knowledge of their fathers, and that they might know the promises of the Lord, and that they may believe the gospel and rely upon the merits of Jesus Christ, and be glorified through faith in His name, and that through their repentance they might be saved." We thank Thee, that thousands and tens of thousands of the descendants of Lehi, in this favored land, have come to a knowledge of the gospel, many of whom have endured faithfully to the end of their lives. We thank Thee, our Father and our God, that those who are living and who have embraced the gospel are now to have the privilege of entering into this holy house, and laboring for the salvation of the souls of their ancestors."
If the Book of Mormon is true, if the story of the Hagoth migration occurred, if Church leaders taught that the Polynesians are descendants of Lehi, and if there are similarities between Native Americans and Polynesians words and traditions, why not connect those things together?
I'm inspired by faith, but I'm comforted by the reasonableness these facts presented me. Would these much commonality exist between societies if they never have contacts with each other's? Can dates be established from the evidences that are found? Can the direction of any colonization be established from what's available?
The 'Solo Ole Va' clearly shows that the Samoans believed that they originated from the East. The Samoan word "malamalama," including the words I compiled (Appendix A), is tied directly to the pre-Columbian native story of the Celestial Fox and Llama - a concept that was rooted in the astronomy of an ancient American people. It's possible that if we find the origins of those rudimentary concepts, we might possibly find the timing of these events.
The peopled waves; waves from east to west. (Solo Ole Va)
Come now; go back by the road you came; take people to possess the Eastern groups; take Atu and "Sasa'e"; that is a pair; they were called conjointly Atu-Sasae; these two people came from the heavens from among the children of Tangaloa. (Fraser, Tala: Samoan Creation Story; Appendix D)
The Samoan language contains elements of Native American languages and traditions, as well as Egyptians. How did those words and traditions end up in the middle Pacific? The mistaken notion that the Pacific people were a single stock contributes to the confusion we have of Polynesians. There is a strike difference between the physical features of Melanesians and Polynesians. That fact was probably used to categorize the Pacific islands as currently existed - Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia.
DNA studies have confirmed the distinction between Polynesians and Melanesians. An introduction of a few people (16) into a region occupied by thousands would result in them absorbing the new languages and cultures. They would also contribute something unique into their new home. The traditions of Samoa and other Polynesian islands show that different religion and leadership concepts were introduced into the western Pacific. They didn't have a written language, and without it, we are left with no clear-cut facts to rely on, and, as Sorenson lamented, the relationship between these visitors to the Hagoth story can't be completely established.
There are some things in science that are assumed without clear-cut proofs. For example, the majority of astrophysicists believe that there is life elsewhere in the universe. We don't have proof of this, but the likelihood of this is enormous when we extrapolate results from planetary studies done near earth and neighboring planets.
Mormon doesn't mention any religious person who might have accompanied Hagoth. The Book of Mormon explains that it was the religious leaders that kept the records, both sacred and secular. Writing was an ability possessed by few in earlier times. Education was rare then even down to our time. When I attended my wife's great-aunt's 100th birthday, I learned that in the year she graduated from high school, only about six percent of the US population did so. She was born in 1905. She attended what is now Ohio State University, which was even rare for girls in her generation.
Therefore, it's reasonable to assume that those who made the sea voyage were young, less literate, and unable to keep written records. However, they were familiar with the traditions, which they passed orally to their descendants. Their children became masters of sea environment, which they incorporated into their new lives, their religion and their stories.
"Here Tagaloa the Builder's council was convened, The council of the circle of the chiefs on high - While thus he spake a solemn silence reigned: 'Let the Builder have the first kava cup in the circle, Then perfect will be the ship whose keel is laid! ... But the Builder and his workmen will come down. Pray, who was first, a work so honored to begin!" (Solo ole Va)
The lack of a written language presents difficulty when comparing the Polynesians to other cultures. Nevertheless, we might learn something if we look at their traditions that they pass down from generations to generations through stories and songs. Thankfully, the Europeans have translated the words of their stories into written words. Before the Europeans in most Polynesian communities, certain individuals are selected at very young age to be taught village history and genealogy. They in turn impart that knowledge to the future generations. Unfortunately, it is this imperfect means that we depend on to compare Polynesians to other cultures. Despite this gloomy situation, we still find things that give us clarity and lead to some common ancient root.
12. Ten Thousand
Ten thousand is an old social and military structure in Meso-America and South America.
"Political Structure & Military Force: The Inca empire began to expand around 1438 along the western coast of South America. This empire was very complex and relied heavily on political structure. One example of their complicated political systems would be what is known as 'Organization by Tens'. This structure was made up of different levels of authority much like some organizational structures used today. The base of this structure was made up of tax-paying Indians. Ten of these workers would have a 'straw boss', and then ten of these groups would have a foreman. Ten foremen would have a headman. Ten thousand people would be under a district governor and ten districts were under the governor of the quarter. The highest ranked individual was called the 'Inca' and was selected by a council of advisees of the royal lineage. The Incas also relied heavily on military for protection and influence. It is believed that military power is how the Incas succeeded in conquering so much territory." (17)
I surmise that many of those who accompanied Hagoth were veterans of the Great War that preceded their departure out to the sea. A veteran would remember certain military facts, such as military organization. The record of that war provided some insight into the structure of the military under Moroni. For instance, it seems that a reasonable army size to effectively protect and repel an opposing force strategically was ten thousand.
When Helaman marched to the city of Judea under the command of Antipus, he found their morale low and trying desperately to fortify their cities in preparation of a Lamanite attack. To the number under Antipus' command were added two thousand young men under Helaman's command and an additional two thousand from Zarahemla. These additional soldiers brought the number to ten thousand or more. According to Helaman, the troop morale improved when their number approached ten thousand with the additional men.
"And also there were sent two thousand men unto us from the land of Zarahemla. And thus we were prepared with ten thousand men...And the Lamanites, thus seeing our forces increase daily, and provisions arrive for our support, and began to be fearful..." (Alma 56: 28 - 29)
Many under Antipus' command died in interim battles, including Antipus himself, so that their number was frightfully diminished. That prompted Helaman, after he inherited command from Antipus, to seek help from the central government. To Helaman's request for help, the civil government sent provisions with two thousand men. Helaman denounced that number as inadequate.
"...this is all the assistance which we did receive...And now the cause of these our embarrassments..." (Alma 58: 8 - 9)
The two thousand men the government sent Helaman was not enough to bring Helaman's force to ten thousand. Encouraged by Helaman's letter and his own failed dealings with the civil government, Moroni marched with his army and helped Pahoran subdue the rebellious king-men. After the rebels were destroyed, Moroni sent provisions and more men to help prop up Helaman's and Lehi's forces; six thousand to each leader that was needed to adequately bring those forces up to ten thousand or more.
A corps, in our modern armies, consists of about ten thousand soldiers. A corps is the largest unit of the army, and it is tasked with major strategic operations. During the American Civil War, two armies consisted of corps made up of fighting units at division, regiment, battalion, company, platoon, and squad levels engaged in vicious battles. A Union army corps typically consisted of 11 to 12 thousand men. The Confederate Army had a slightly higher number in its corps. I can visualize in my mind a similar engagement between the Nephites, under Moroni's leadership, and the Lamanites. I liken Moroni to someone like General Lee and Helaman to someone like General Longstreet.
"This errand brought the people of the Builder down - A class of workmen as ten thousand known, With Architect-in-Chief, but one alone. The rafter-breaking god came down, (With wrath inflamed and angry frown ;) Alas! My building all complete is scattered in confusion great." (Solo ole Va)
In the Solo, the reference to "ten thousand" denotes the number of workmen who accompanied the "Architect-in-Chief" to take care of what could be ascertained as a rebellion. Can we say that this refers to a Chief Captain accompanied by ten thousand soldiers? The Book of Mormon refers to leaders who commanded major military campaigns in the war-infested areas of the country as Chief Captains. The population of Ta'u, Manua, Samoa islands, when Powell collected and translated the Solo, was probably equal or less than today's number (year 2003), less than 5000. I think that the Solo author, from personal experience, couldn't possibly conceptualize a ten thousand men army, but that it could only be imagined or learned from past experiences.
Ten thousand is also referenced in the later wars that Mormon participated in - 400 or so years from the Hagoth departure into the open sea. Mormon 6:13, "And behold, the ten thousand of Gidgiddonnah had fallen, and he also in the midst." It would be natural for the ex-soldiers to weave those military details into their traditions. The "ten thousand" is a military concept mentioned in several places in the Bible. It seems to indicate a competent number for defensive and offensive purposes, and used extensively in the old-world. The reference to David slaying ten thousand glorifies David's military prowess compare to Saul. Defeating a force of ten thousand is a great feat.
There are many other references to ten thousand in the scriptures.
"We'll go up against it as the lot directs. We'll take ten men out of every hundred from all the tribes of Israel, and a hundred from a thousand, and a thousand from ten thousand..." (Judges 20: 9)
"Then ten thousand of Israel's finest men made a frontal attack on Gibeah. The fighting was so heavy that the Benjamites did not realize how near disaster was." (Judges 20:34)
"And five of you shall chase an hundred, and hundreds of you shall put ten thousand to flight: and your enemies shall fall before you by the sword." (Leviticus 26:8)
"And the woman answered one another as they played, and said, Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands." (1 Samuel 18:7)
"A fiery stream issued and came forth from before him: thousand thousands ministered unto him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him: the judgment was set, and the books were opened." (Daniel 7:10)
"And Enoch also, the seventh from Adam, prophesied of these, saying, Behold, the Lord cometh with ten thousands of his saints, to execute judgment upon all," (Jude 1: 14-15)
13. Andean Celestial Fox & Egyptian Anubis
"Yea, I make a record in the language of my father, which consists of the learning of the Jews and the language of the Egyptians". (1 Nephi 1: 2)
Could perhaps the descendants of Lehi use the dark celestial object as the Egyptians did with their Anubis? Anubis was a son of Ra. He is associated with the jackal and had something to do with the dead. Both the Andean celestial fox and the Samoan "uli" share similar dark and dreadful connotations as Anubis - they all refer to a dog-like thing. The Egyptians also believed that Anubis rules in the west. The Samoans also believed that the dead go to the west.
There was an incident in my youth, while I stayed with my grandparents on Manu'a, where someone had killed a dog. I didn't see it, but I heard that he took the dog to a remote site outside the village to kill it, and possibly cooked it. During that same period, I have watched the killing of pigs. It was done openly with a spectacle resembling a ceremony. The pig was strangled using an "amo", a wooden staff, and the throat and the belly slit open and filled with hot stones. It was done with excitement by the "aumaga", the working untitled men, to show off their talents and to impress the "matai", their leader. Was killing dogs in Samoa taboo? The Andean people considered the celestial fox as the one that accompanies the dead to the underworld; so is Anubis. (18)
Sullivan wrote: "In the present-day Andes, Quechua-speaking natives hold that the spirits of those who have died must enlist the spirit of a black dog to carry it to a village on the far banks of the river, where the ancestors dwell. Only those who have been extremely abusive to dogs in life fail to make the passage." (Sullivan, p. 59)
14. Does Waka points to an ancestral homeland?
"...the notion of the lineage wakas promoted the principles of peaceful unity-in-diversity among the various highland tribes by virtue of each tribe's descent from a common class of objects created by Wiraqocha. Likewise the doctrine of the pacarina, or place of "dawning", whence emerged each tribal lineage waka, established the right of each ethnic group to its tribal land." (Sullivan, p.236)
"...they were animals...I had been so long accustomed to relating the formulation "stars are animals" to the behavior of animals in myths, that I had never thought to apply it the lineage wakas...The notion that each species of animal had a celestial prototype responsible for the welfare of that species is a well-established fact of Andean ethnography." (Sullivan, p.237)
The concept of wakas is found in the Pacific and South America. The "wakaf" - "benefaction for religion" - in the Malay language has its roots to Islamic traditions. In Polynesia and South America, waka represents their origin, a celestial home. I found on the Internet information about a recently excavated Mayan city in Guatemala named Waka. Is there a Middle East connection? I found the following Egyptian words that I believe are the source for the "waka" concept found in the Americas. I've also compiled a list of words (Appendix A) from Southeast Asia, Oceania (Samoan), Americas, and the Middle East (Egyptian) that show a transmission of ideas by contact.
Possible effects of the connected idea of the Waka

English \Egyptian \Samoan \Americas

boat \uaa \va'a \-

the boat of truth \maati \- \-

sharp \- \maati \-

Israel \aaa-t \- \-

root \- \a'a \-

to dawn \- \- \ah (Mayan)

name of star \maa \- \-

stone \- \ma'a \-

foreigner \aaa, aaa-ta \- \-

begin \- \amata \-

How did it go from aaa-ta to waka? I don't know. However, the fact that ancient Egyptians depended heavily on water transportation, in business and religion, would make the boat a passionate symbol in everyday Egyptian lives. This marine knowledge would have been known to the Israelites when they were in Egypt.
The word "manu" is found in some South American indigenous languages as well as in Polynesia and Southeast Asia. The Polynesian "manu" refers to animals, such as birds and beasts, or a person behaving inhumanly. The word "manu" in East Temor is bird. The word "manu" in South America refers to the large region of rain forest east of the once Inca Empire. I was told that it refers to an animal habitat.
In Egyptian mythology, "manu" is the mythical mountain on which the sun rests; a region of the western horizon. It is one of two mountains that held up the sky. Its counterpart is 'BAKHU.' The double lion god, AKER, guarded these peaks. Could these visitors to America, familiar with Egyptian myths, named the Andes MANU after the Egyptian mythical mountain? Geographically, America is west of Egypt. Egyptian mythology positions the two mountains "MANU" and "BAKHU", west and east respectively. I suggest that the Samoan word "matu" for north originated, albeit incorrectly, from the Egyptian myth. "MATU" could mean, "leading mountain" from the Egyptian words "Ma" (king/leader) and "Tu" (mountain). Pagan Samoa also has a god who props up the sky using objects.
"Then Tangaloa said to Tui-te'e-langi, 'Come here now; that you may prop up the sky.' Then it was propped up; it reached up on high. But it fell down because he was not able for it. Then Tui-te'e-langi went to Masoa and Teve; he brought them and used them as props; then he was able. (The masoa and the teve were the first plants that grew, and other plants came afterwards)." (Fraser, Tala: Samoan Creation Story)
Could the mislabeled of the Samoan north ("matu") a result of the way the Nephites oriented themselves? The Nephites used the "learning of the Jews and the language of the Egyptian". (Nephi 1:2) It could very well be that the descendents of Polynesians kept some of those same ideas.
Connected with the "waka"-concept are pre-Columbian words "camac" and "ayllu" - a prototypical concept referring to specific human groups.
"All things have their vitalizing prototypes or "camac", including human groups; the "camac" of a human group is usually its "huaka" [waka] of origin." (Sullivan, p.239)
"Just as each "ayllu" descended from a star, the people of each ayllu would live in harmony with each others, in the same manner that each star or constellation lived in fixed harmony with all the other stars. And just as each star or constellation possesses its own unique identity among other unique identities, the various ethnic units descended from unique wakas would maintain their identities while participating in a greater unity." (Sullivan, p.241)
I surmised that this concept is found in the Samoan language. An example of this is found in the words "tama tama" (son) and "tama teine" (daughter) that are formed from the prefix "tama" (child), and the words "tama" (boy) and "teine" (girl). The words "alo" and "atali'i" also mean boy in Samoan.
Could these words and concepts, "camac", "ayllu", "tama", and "alo" have origins in the Egyptian words Ka (person) and Ma (King/Leader) - a person who follows a Leader. The word "ta'ma" (father) is formed from the word "tama".
15. More similar elements between the "Solo Ole Va" and the Book of Mormon.
Around the time of the Great War that preceded the Hagoth story, there were great discussions about the nature of God. In the eleventh chapter of the book of Alma is mention of one such debate between Amulek and Zeezrom. The incident involved a group of people who gathered to hear Amulek and Alma talked about sin and repentance. Amongst them was Zeezrom who desired to discredit their message because he was one of those who profited from the activities that Alma and Amulek denounced. His method was to create confusion by accusing Amulek for teaching polytheism using the mysterious relationship between God the Father and Jesus Christ. It was so cunning of Zeezrom in his persistent questions that many who heard the discussion became confused. (Alma 11: 35) That was his purpose. It can be readily seen from the Book of Mormon that there was a great deal of confusion about this subject, as we have today. Modern revelations through Prophet Joseph Smith have clarified much of this issue, but many still believe the Trinity as the answer to this confusing and mysterious nature of God.
Theologically, the Solo conveys a structure of one supreme god ruling over other gods. What I know is that that concept is different from what the LMS (London Missionary Society) missionaries taught in the South Pacific during the time, around 1870, when Mr. Taua-nu'u told Mr. Powell these stories. LMS members were associated with the Anglican and Presbyterian Churches in England. The single most important concept that these churches shared is the Trinity, which they staunchly defended. The Solo gives us an idea of the theological aspect of Polynesian society, which in my view was vastly different from the theology of the Anglican and Presbyterian Churches.
Dr. Fraser noted that the Solo myth is pre-Christian: "Le atua Tagaloa; this expression shows that this myth is not modern; for the word atua, 'god,' was almost obsolete when the first missionaries went to Samoa." (19)
The following ideas are inferred from reading the Solo.
a. The God of the Polynesians is the Supreme God who rules over other Gods and Lords.
"Descend, ye gods, to the fono of Confusion. But rest quietly at the fono of Tranquility. Here Tagaloa the Builder's council was convened, The council of the circle of the chiefs on high - While thus he spake a solemn silence reigned..." (Solo ole Va)
b. The God of the Polynesians has a physical body and created man in his image.
"A strong desire to have a place whereon to stand Possesses him..."
"The bodies only move, they have no breath, Nor heart's pulsation. The godlike Tagaloa learns (in heaven) above, The sacred vine to gender life has now begun, ... But them I fashion into member'd forms..." (Solo ole Va)
c. The God of the Polynesians is a passionate being.
"The rafter-breaking god came down, (With wrath inflamed and angry frown;) Alas! my building all complete is scattered in confusion great." (Solo ole Va)
d. Ancient Polynesians believed in a pre-existence.
"To each of you from above I now impart a will, Opacity must be the portion of your bodies still, Your faces, they must shine, (I so ordain), That they may Tagaloa entertain When he comes down to walk this earth again." (Solo ole Va)
Orphic Grave Tablet (South America): I am the child of the Earth and the starry Heavens, but my origin is of heaven alone.
Quechua (South America): "In this world we are exiled from our homeland in the world above." (Sullivan, p.47)
e. Ancient Polynesians believed God granted people free agency to choose between right and wrong.
"To each of you from above I now impart a will..." (Solo ole Va)
16. Tagaloa, like Wiraqocha, is a degenerate form of an ancient idea.
If the Book of Mormon records a history of Israeli descendants, why were these people so quick to worship the sun? Knight and Lomas (20) wrote that the Israelites at certain times worship the sun. The Book of Mormon contains many stories of people who claim some mysterious knowledge, which I suspect are a continuation of those "sun-worshiped" traditions that were practiced in the Middle East that Lehi and his family were well aware off.
"'And he brought me into the inner court of the LORD's house, and, behold, at the door of the temple of the Lord, between the porch and the alter, were about five and twenty men, with their backs toward the temple of the Lord, and their faces toward the east; and they worshipped the sun toward the east' (Ezekiel 8: 16) In this verse Ezekiel berates the Enochian Jews for turning their backs to God and worshipping the Sun. He goes on to blame their astral activities for the fall of Jerusalem." (The Book of Hirum, Knight and Lomas)
I believe that the Polynesian Tagaloa resembles the Andean Wiraqocha - the deification of a heroic figure. Just as Wiraqocha Inca became a god to the Incas, Tagaloa became a god to Polynesians.
The word chaca - meaning "bridge" in both Quechua and Aymara - was frequently used, in astronomy context, to describe locations on the celestial sphere of inherent geometrical interest. Holguin also lists puncuchaca, where puncu means "door" and chaca then refers either to a threshold or a lintel. Another, related word - again found in both languages - is chacana, meaning "ladder" or "stairway." These words - styling important astronomical junctures "bridges," "doorways," and "stairways" - functioned in mythical usage to identify boundaries that were, at the same time, astronomical and lay between differing modes of existence, or states of consciousness. (Sullivan, p.69)
If we dissect the name Tagaloa (a compound word) in Samoan terms, "taga loa" means "all seeing person" - a seer. (21) The Samoan word "taga" translates to four words - bag, talent, allowed, and permitted. Why? I think these words are characteristics of some person. The word "loa" could be a variant of the Samoan "iloa" (to know) (22), or "loloa" (deep or steep).
Two other Samoan words that might be useful to this discussion are "leiloa" (lost) and "lilo" (hidden). These terms defined the name Tagaloa (23) as someone who had the ability, or permission, to peer deep into the spirit world through a mystical, or secret doorway. Those who ventured out into the deep ocean understand the fearsome and profound feelings one gets looking into the ocean depth. Those similar feelings might have caused early Polynesians to associate Tagaloa with the deep ocean (moana).
Here we find a striking similarity between the Andean and Polynesian traditions, as well as Mesoamericans. Wiraqocha had the ability to see into the unknown, and so did Tagaloa. Both Tagaloa and Wiraqocha are based on some archaic idea that predates Inca and Polynesia societies. The root of this common idea may very well be the traditions and teachings found in the Book of Mormon.
A drawing in Martin Brennan's book, "The Hidden Maya", depicts a ceremony entitled "The Apparition of Kauil" that might have some relationship to the concept of Tagaloa as I discribe above.
James Gifford, "Recent thought concerning the interpretation of Maya prehistory", quoted Vogt, who explained the purpose of a Zinacantecos in Mayan societies, - "While the priestly hierarchy is functioning in the ceremonial center with its complex annual round of rituals, the religious life of the outlying hamlets is essentially in the hands of the b'iloletick. The term b'ilol means literally 'seer'..." (Mesoamerican Archaeology, p. 91)
"A lord ... peers into a mirror manipulated by a dwarf. ...the large clay pot directly before him and adjacent to an enema bag followed by three enema pots." (Brennan, p.150)
17. Any religious connection to Southeast Asia?
The renowned American mythologist, Joseph Campbell, said that there are common themes in all myths throughout the world. Samoans have many stories that resemble stories from Southeast Asia and the Americas. At some point in Polynesia's past, there might have been an encounter with traditions of Southeast Asia that resulted in an exchange of ideas. If we look at pre-European Polynesia and Tribal Indonesia, the tribal religions of these two areas have some similarities, but there are also distinguishable differences. The characteristically animistic Southeast Asian traditions (24) are also seen in Polynesia, as well as Mesoamerica.
However, I think that there is a subtle difference between these traditions as can be seen in the association of religious icons, like Tagaloa, to spiritual powers. A review of theological ideas of the Solo to those of pagan Indonesia will reveal distinct concepts. The pagan Indonesians saw the natural world having inherent power that influenced people. The pagan Polynesians, on the other hand, viewed all natural phenomena as direct manifestations of the all-influencing power of their god Tagaloa. When objects act supernaturally, it was because of the actions of Tagaloa or other sub-deities under his control. The stories from Samoa tell how Tagaloa influenced animals to act certain ways or he himself changed into an animal or person.
While watching a film about Indonesia's tribal religion, I saw something that reminded me of Hinduism - the veneration of animals. The film documented a burial ritual of the Torajas people on the Island of Sulawesi in Indonesia.
"They are local, exclusive and mostly animist, believing that inanimate objects and natural phenomena possess a soul. This episode explores primal religion in a tribe who live in a mountain fortress on an Indonesian island." [Religion in Indonesia, Film narrated and hosted by Ronald Eyre.]
The Torajasians live in their mountainous land called Tana Toraja, which is often referred to as the "Land of the Heavenly Kings." Their houses are called Tongkonan, and they faced north in honor of their heavenly king or where they came from. I was confused because other references say that they regarded east as the realm of the gods. A ceremony was shown where a priest blessed, telling it why it had to die, and sacrificed a buffalo.
The film also mentioned one of their myths relating to the field mice. They believe that the mice owned the rice fields - and that they must share the harvest with their rodent neighbors. The film showed a burial ceremony where a pavilion that housed the dead woman was burned while her body was kept in an exposed rock-wall with other dead relatives interred in decorative vases. It was explained that the pavilion was burned and the bull sacrificed so that she'll have a place to stay and animals when she arrive in the next life. It looked like a modified mix of Hindu and Egyptian (25) ideas.
Somehow, the Torajasians have decided not to cremate their relatives as the Hindus do, but instead left the bodies whole in the vases. Their main god is Pandang Matua, and they also worship other gods and ancestors. They also believed that "their forefathers descended from heaven in a boat some twenty generations ago."
18. Elements of Lehi's dream?
The Polynesians, on the other hand, buried their kin (except an unlucky few) so they can take their final trip to the blissful Pulotu.
"These waters are also connected with the abodes of bliss. In Futuna (Horne Island) the abode of the gods was known as 'Pulotu,' in the midst of which grew an immense tree, the 'puka-tala', the leaves of which supplied all wants, for on being cooked they changed into all kinds of delicious foods. In this region was the Lake Vai-ola, and if the happy denizens of Pulotu felt themselves growing old they had but to bathe in the waters of 'Vai-ola' and they emerged full of life and beauty. Poluto was also the name of the netherworld on Savai'i, the largest of the Samoan Islands. 'Luao', or 'Luaoo' (the Hallow Pit), was the name of the place down which the spirit went on the death of the body. At the bottom of this Hollow Land there was a running stream, which floated the spirits away to Pulotu, the dominions of Saveasiuleo (Savea of the Echo). All floated away together, well- and ill- favored, young and old, sound and sick, chiefs and commoners; they must look neither to right nor left, nor attempt to reach either side, nor must they look back. Little more than half alive, they floated on until they reach Pulotu, where they bathed in the waters of Vai-ola, when all became lively, bright, and vigorous, every infirmity vanished, and even the aged becoming young again. Everything went on in Pulotu much as in the world of life, except that here their bodies were singularly volatile, so that they were able to ascend at night, (26) becoming luminous sparks, or vapors, revisiting their former homes, but retiring again in early dawn to the bush or to Pulotu." (Johannes Andersen, Myths and Legends of the Polynesians, p.419-420)
The opposite of Pulotu is "Sa le Fe'e" (sacred place of the octopus god) - the Samoan version of Hell. The tree and water of Pulotu reminds me of a story in the Book of Mormon - Lehi's dream.
"And it came to pass that I beheld a tree, whose fruit was desirable to make one happy. And it came to pass that I did go forth and partake of the fruit thereof; and I beheld that it was most sweet, above all that I ever before tasted. Yea, and I beheld that the fruit thereof was white, to exceed all the whiteness that I had ever seen. And as I partook of the fruit thereof it filled my soul with exceedingly great joy; wherefore, I began to be desirous that my family should partake of it also; for I knew that it was desirable above all other fruit. And as I cast my eyes round about, that perhaps I might discover my family also, I beheld a river of water; and it ran along, and it was near the tree of which I was partaking the fruit. And I looked to behold from whence it came; and I saw the head thereof a little way off; and at the head thereof I beheld your mother Sariah, and Sam, and Nephi; and they stood as if they knew not whither they should go. And it came to pass that I beckoned unto them; and I also did say unto them with a loud voice that they should come unto me, and partake of the fruit, which was desirable above all other fruit. And it came to pass that they did come unto me and partake of the fruit also. And it came to pass that I was desirous that Laman and Lemuel should come and partake of the fruit also, wherefore, I cast mine eyes towards the head of the river, that perhaps I might see them. And it came to pass that I saw them, but they would not come unto me and partake of the fruit. And I beheld a rod of iron, and it extended along the bank of the river, and led to the tree by which I stood. And I also beheld a straight and narrow path, which came along by the rod of iron, even to the tree by which I stood; and it also led by the head of the fountain, unto a large and spacious field, as if it had been a world. And I saw numberless concourses of people, many of whom were pressing forward, that they might obtain the path which led unto the tree by which I stood. And it came to pass that they did come forth, and commence in the path which led to the tree. And it came to pass that there arose a mist of darkness; yea, even an exceedingly great mist of darkness, insomuch that they who had commenced in the path did lose their way, that they wandered off and were lost. And it came to pass that I beheld others pressing forward, and they came forth and caught hold of the end of the rod of iron; and they did press forward through the mist of darkness, clinging to the rod of iron, even until they did come forth and partake of the fruit of the tree." (Lehi's Dream, Book of Mormon, 1 Nephi 8: 10 - 24)
19. Repentance: Ifoga
"And except they repent in sackcloth and ashes..." (Mosiah 11:25)
The Samoans have a similar tradition, which is still being practiced today. During the "ifoga", the offending person would kneel infront of the victims house, pour ashes from the "umu", and covered with a fine mat. The "ifoga" is not done a lot these days because we have a modern court system.
"This practice of confessing guilt is even more significantly displayed in major Samoan ceremony, the ifoga, in which those who have done others wrong ritually humiliate themselves before them. This they used to do by taking stones and firewood from which an oven is made and, sitting with bowed heads covered with fine mats, so offering these fine mats in reparation and themselves as pigs to be cooked and eaten. Such a gesture, which to Samoans is deeply moving, almost always leads to reconciliation. In contemporary Samoa it is usually made with fine mats alone. An ifoga, in my experience, is always accompanied by the public confession of guilt." (Freeman, p.189)
20. Lucifer is Satan
Scholars have debated why the name Lucifer, a Latin word, appears in the Old Testament.

In translating the Old Testament to Latin, the word Lucifer replaces “morning star.” An obvious concern is why this word also appears in the Lehi record when Lehi presumably left the Middle East before the Latin translation. Because Isaiah was eagerly quoted by Book of Mormon authors - this ambiguity surfaced in 2 Nephi 24: 12.

According to experts, the Hebrew text refers to a deposed Babylonian king - "Heleyl". The name "Heleyl" (27) is translated as "day star, son of the dawn."
Could the name "Alele" in the Solo be a reference to the Old Testament story? "Alele" also means "promontory" in Samoan. If the Solo was written by a people that were exposed to the Nephite records that contain verses from the book of Isaiah, I think that during his translation, Joseph Smith saw in the Nephite records something similar. Could the Mayan word (28) for lordship, "ajaw-le-le (ajawlel)," share a common root with the word "a-le-le" in the Solo?
"Let none the truth again say (in unbelief); "Alele" was Manu'a's first known chief; The son of Tagaloa; he wrought unrighteous judgment."(Solo Ole Va)
"How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning! How art thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations!" (Isaiah 14: 12) (Also recorded in Book of Mormon, 2 Nephi 24: 12)
It's very possible the word 'Lucifer' is not mentioned in the Nephite records, but a reference to a person known to Lehi. Joseph Smith in his translation of the Nephite records and later translators of the Judaic records understood that the real person described in those scripture verses is none other than the Morning Star himself - Lucifer.
21. "Soifua" versus "Adieu"
"And I, Jacob, saw that I must soon go down to my grave; wherefore, I said unto my son Enos: Take these plates. And I told him the things which my brother Nephi had commanded me, and he promised obedience unto the commands. And I make an end of my writing upon these plates, which writing has been small; and to the reader I bid farewell, hoping that many of my brethren may read my words. Brethren, adieu." (Jacob 7: 27)
The Webster's dictionary lists "adieu" as old French word that meant, "To God, I commend you." Samoan has two words for goodbye - "soifua" and "tofa." They are used interchangeably and often used together. "Tofa" basically means "Good bye." The word "soifua" expresses ones affectionate desire for someone else's long life and safekeeping. In my opinion, "soifua" would translate perfectly to the original usage of the word "adieu." If the Nephites had a word that conveys the feelings of "soifua" and "adieu", why would not Joseph Smith translate it into a word he knew resembles its true meaning? I would.
22. Lapatai, Rabbanah, Raboni
"..Rabbanah, which is, being interpreted, powerful or great king.." (Alma 18: 13)
"...She turned toward him and cried out in Aramaic, "Rabboni!" (which means Teacher)." (John 20: 16)
The Samoa word "lapata'i" can be translated to the words "warning" or "advice". The letters 'R' and 'L' are interchangeable in the Polynesian language, which would make this word either Lapata'i or Rapata'i. It sounds strange now, but considering the fact that when the Europeans translated the sounds they heard Samoan spoke into words, and that the letter 'b' is not used in the Samoan language, the spelling and sound of the word "lapata'i" may have been different from Samoan anciently through language degradation. Could this Samoan word have a common root with the words Rabbanah and Rabboni quoted above? In the language of the Zapotecs (Central America), the word "rapa" means "take care of," "watches," and "guards." Incidentally, the Samoan word "anapogi" [Samoan 'g' is pronounced 'ng'], for fasting (go without food), reminds me of those old-world teachers in solitude meditating.
23. Some with his voice and others with thundering and lightings.
Nephi wrote prophetically concerning the signs that will accompany the death of Jesus Christ," For thus spake the prophet: The Lord God surely shall visit all the house of Israel at that day, some with his voice, because of their righteouness, unto their great joy and salvation, and others with the thunderings and the lightings of his power..." (1 Nephi 19: 11)
The Polynesian god Tagaloa is associated with thundering and lightings. This may be a common idea, but taken together with other traditions leads us suggestively to a moment of global influence.
"Again, the thunder and lightning that were once the awesome attributes of Tagaloa have been transferred to Jehovah, to whom, is one of their hymns, Samoans sing: Your voice, Jehovah, that I hear in the thunder clap fills me with fear; The lighting is also yours and conveys your tidings." (Freeman, p.187)
24. Apolima, Apurima, Abraham
Father Cobo recorded some information about an Inca temple to a god named Apurima.

(29) If people migrated from the Americas into the Pacific, could the naming of an island in Samoa, Apolima, based on that tradition? If the Book of Mormon stories are true, could those names be related to the Abrahamic story that the Lehi family had knowledge of? It's something to think about.

25. The Lehi Tree of Life Stone?
In 1941, a finding in Mexico, designated as Stela 4, Izapa, was seen by some to depict the story of Lehi's dream recorded in the Book of Mormon. That view was strongly disputed by the experts.
"Science does not arrive at its conclusions by syllogism, and no people on earth deplore proof demonstration by syllogism more loudly than real archaeologists do." (Dee Green, "Book of Mormon Archaeology," p.75)
However, what are the facts here? The story told by the Stela 4, the Polynesian myth, Polotu, and the Book of Mormon are very similar indeed.
26. DNA and Book of Mormon claims
Some people ignore the Book of Mormon claims as merely religious lunacy, but there are some who vehemently oppose it and are obsessed with discrediting it. Of this later group, the human DNA had become their latest weapon. As a non-scientist, I can't comment about this subject persuasively. However, I think that scientist or not, we are all obligated to seek truths and not depended solely on the whim of ideas that come along.
It's understandable why the faith of some people waiver in light of certain scientific revelations. It was once an acceptable notion in the Christian Church to view the Earth as the center of the solar system and the Sun circling around it. It's important to note that the false earth-centered planetary view was not entirely the Church's doing. Science shares some blame in the inaccurate Aristotelian view of the Solar system that was once considered the truth. It's important for our foes to know that our inaccurate understanding of the universe doesn't necessarily mean we favor error to knowledge.
As I stated previously, when it comes to DNA and the Book of Mormon, I really can't say much because I'm not a scientist. However, I think that there could be a possibility that what the experts are saying, to discredit the Book of Mormon using genetics, is incomplete and susceptible to statistical interpretation, and material (30) deterioration.
"These observations about individuals and groups need to be treated carefully. Statistical associations can be made between collections of genetic markers and particular groups. For example, geneticists might someday be able to say that if a person has these ten markers and does not have those ten, he or she has a certain probability of being a member of a particular culturally defined group. But the associations will always be statistical because very few people will have exactly the same set of markers - and because the boundaries of the group will always be poorly defined. Our histories are too interconnected to draw distinct line between collections of people." (Steve Olson, Mapping Human History, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002, p.119)
"When geneticists look at our DNA, they do not see a world of rigidly divided groups each going its own way. They see something much more fluid and ambiguous - something more like the social structures that have emerged in Hawaii as intermarriage has accelerated" (Olson, p. 236)
The beauty of Science is in its adaptation, and its systematic methods for arriving at basic truths. Paul Nurse, a Nobel Prize winner in Medicine, explained on a December 12, 2004 interview with Charlie Rose that while science takes a skeptical view of things, religion clings to absolutes. I too am critical of people who want to teach "Creationism" as a science in schools besides the "Theory of Evolution." I’m concern because, as I understand it, "Creationism" isn't science. Science is based on assumptions and validations of basic questions and doubts. In contrast, the dogma of "Creationism" is essential and central to the religious faith of Christians. Testing "Creationism" using the scientific method is in a way questioning its truthfulness. I don't think that is what the proponents of teaching "Creationism" in schools as a science had in mind.
William Phillips, a 1997 physics Nobel Prize winner, who spoke in the BYU Forum (1/22/02), stated that it's not good to use science as religion, nor is it good to use religion as science. However, he said, "Ordinary science and ordinary religion are not enemies." A brilliant scientist like William Phillips can both perform his technical job successfully and have an intimate relationship with his God. In the case of DNA research, there is always room for improvement in both the methods used to examine the body of physical evidence and the interpretations of the gathered facts.
The science of genetics is one of the most fascinating areas of science. In its core are the building blocks of all living things. On the molecular level, there is very little difference between humans - a tiny fraction of one percent. As a comparison, the DNA of a human and monkey are within a couple of percentage difference.
A tiny alteration to the DNA molecule accounts for the different races. Most anthropological debates about human migration centered on this minute difference of DNA constituent. At this slice of our genetic makeup, experts are attempting to map out the origin of every society on the planet. My page involves the connections between the people of central Pacific, pre-Columbian America, and a people of middle-Eastern origin. If it can be established that there's a connection between these three areas - would that settle the debate? I don't think so. I think that those on the offensive aren't entirely objective about their analysis. They may think that their views are without pre-judgment, but I'm convince that they are motivated by much more that scientific truth seeking.
I have included some sources in the "facts" section that establish connections between the main geographic areas I cover. The basic method for testing scientific inquiries is through the Scientific Method; "If A is equal to B, and B is equal to C, then A is equal to C." It has been established that Polynesian DNA matches that of pre-Columbian DNA. It's also been shown that there are some similarities between DNA found amongst the Native Americans and people of the Middle East and Europe. It's limited to some areas of the Americas and less extensive, but we are dealing with a small DNA sample. Also, as the Book of Mormon clearly explains, several groups did migrate into the Americas, even long before the Nephites. (31)
The biology of the Pacific people has evolved through countless contacts just like what happened in other parts of the world. Several hundred years BC for instance, the Greeks conquered lands as far away as India. Alexander the Great defeated the Persian king Darius in 334 BC (300 years after Lehi presumably left the Middle East). His men scoured the landscapes and appropriated goods, slaves, and women. It's possible a geneticist today could separate out the decedents of those conquering Greeks from the general Indian population, but that would be a taunting task. Some centuries later, the Romans conquered most of the Middle East. Still further into the future, the Crusaders from Northern Europe settled many areas in Palestine. Those occupations presented opportunities for people to mix. Therefore, an examination of the DNA of today's Middle Eastern population will reveal what had happened in the intervening years instead of what might have been 2600 years ago.
Some experts are saying that there isn't one, but several possible origins of pre-European Americans. Olson, using DNA studies (32), shows three very likely pre-Columbian migrations into the New World - two successive migrations from Asia and one possible migration from Europe.
The Book of Mormon also talks about different groups migrating into the Americas. It mentions three prominent groups with some references to others. It's possible that Joseph Smith might have heard stories about the Native American people - some rumors and some factual. Nevertheless, for Joseph Smith to insist that the Book of Mormon is true without regards to the scientific knowledge of his time was quite bold.
It's interesting how many "Christian" anti-Mormons use science to attack the Book of Mormon, when, in essence, science also invalidates many Biblical claims. Biology has an irreligious approach to truth, which unfortunately shows a human history far different from the Biblical stories. I find their attacks of the Book of Mormon using DNA very suspicious.
27. Joseph Smith and the Book of Mormon claim.
It's amazing how Joseph Smith created the Mormon culture amidst a predominantly Christian and increasingly educated society. If the Book of Mormon was Joseph's doing, why did he risk his life by insisting it was a translation of an ancient document to the very end? The controversial book when it was offered to the public was received with contempt by many and was seen as contrary with acceptable knowledge of the new world and its original inhabitants. Either Joseph told the truth or he was mad.
What about those who followed him? What was their motivation to accept Joseph's claim? All three witnesses to the authenticity of the golden plates, which the Book of Mormon was translated from, stood firmly behind their testimonies even though they left the LDS Church. They were known to many outside the Mormon circle (33) as men of great honor and integrity. There must have been something to what they saw that kept them true to their words.
Soon after it was officially organized, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints sent missionaries to other states and abroad. The growth of the Church westward also necessitated making others leaders at various stages. There was clearly a strong reason for Joseph Smiths followers to join his cause and to advance it.
There were others during Josephs' time who wrote similar claims that Native Americans originated from the Middle East, which Joseph's detractors claim Joseph plagiarized. It's easy to see why there is intense interest about a connection between America and the Old World. The amazing accomplishments of pre-Columbian Americans and similarities between some of their traditions to the Old World will cause anyone to wonder and to imagine relationships between these societies.
Although there was sparse information about ancient Native Americans during Joseph's time, I think there was enough for someone of above average education to write a book about them with careful attention to details. To that point, there was a book written by Ethan Smith (no relation to Joseph Smith) called the "View of the Hebrews". Many think that Joseph Smith copied Ethan's book and called it "The Book of Mormon".
"Ethan Smith's reconstruction of Indian history had one purpose: to identify Indians with the lost ten tribes. The full title of (Ethan) Smith's book was 'View of the Hebrews: or, The Tribes of Israel in America.'" (Richard L. Bushman, Joseph Smith and the beginnings of Mormonism, p.135)
It's probably correct to say that Ethan Smith was more educated than Joseph Smith, and his book was careful about the technical information using noted discoveries. (34) That was not the case with Joseph Smith, who in my view ignored those facts and went above and beyond the common, albeit limited, technical understanding of his time. To have written a book and claimed it as revealed scripture, while knowing full well the backlash of social reaction in early Puritan America, was unthinkable. If his claim was not true, what was Joseph thinking?
"At best the papers gave Joseph Smith notoriety. The editors elevated him from an obscure money digger of limited neighborhood fame to the rank of full-blown religious impostor." And "...a Rochester editor quoted the Palmyra Freeman, setting the tone for editors and publicists for the rest of the century.'The greatest piece of superstition that has come within our knowledge now occupies the attention of a few individuals of this quarter.' The Freeman reported that the 'Golden Bible was almost invariably treated as it should have been - with contempt.'" (Richard L. Bushman, p.111)
Joseph Smith probably had access to Spanish journals that chronicled bringing horses to the New World and Native Americans cultures; there were written materials on Native Americans during his time. Joseph also might have some knowledge of the Native Americans living around the part of the United States where he grew up. I don't know how much technical information was available to Joseph, but I feel that if such information were available to him, the Book of Mormon would reflect it. But it appears to me that he didn't. It seems that Joseph isn't the genius as some claim him to be. He merely translated a record as he was instructed.
From its very beginning, the Book of Mormon was challenged and attacked by laymen, scholars and scientists. However, science had progressed and changed to some extent provide some support to the Book of Mormon. For instance, when Joseph translated the Nephite record, artifacts connecting America and Polynesia were non-existent. But today, 200 years later, we now know, factually, that these societies shared common words, myths, and artifacts.
An archeological find in South America proved without a doubt that people were present in the Americas long before the supposed land bridge, about 11,000 years ago. These findings cause incremental adjustments to our current understanding of human migration. The South American find proposed the peopling of the Americas twice as old as the time the theoretical bridge existed. The experts are still debating this. That wasn't the first time an evidence of a pre land-bridge migration was unearthed. In North America, other evidence was found and was adamantly refuted by the experts who were prodded to the new view by the South American find.
The current scientific explanation of the peopling of the Americas is vastly different than 40 years ago, which I presume is even more different than when Joseph Smith was alive. This suggests that migrations over water were within the abilities of ancient people. Science moves on! New ideas, new findings, and improved analyses are revealing an increasingly clearer picture of the movements of people in and out of pre-Columbian America.
I believe that Joseph Smith "translated" the Book of Mormon. It was a translation of the experiences of ancient authors by someone influenced by European and Christian traditions. It was a translation done by someone with limited, but solid, basic education afforded to pupils of average means, which, in some way, is reflected in its down-to-earth (35) approach. His lack of education didn't diminish his grasp of the subjects. An accumulation of facts doesn't necessarily translate to good wisdom. Joseph Smith was versed in the Bible, but, I think, no more than any other Christian adherent at the time. Even though his formal education was limited, I'm sure that he must have read and studied what was available to him.
Joseph's enemies, then and now, flip-flop on the issue of his intellect - they both attack him as an illiterate dreamer and a crafty genius. If the Book of Mormon is Joseph's own fabrication as some charged, why are there elements in it that are strangely foreign to a person in Joseph's surrounding? I think that Joseph Smith's work to bring forth the Book of Mormon gave him a far better education than his peers.
Robert Millet quoted the following from Josiah Quincy, son of the President of Harvard University, and later the mayor of Boston, who visited Prophet Joseph Smith in Nauvoo, Illinois, in May of 1844.
"It is by no means improbable that some future textbook, for the use of generations yet unborn, will contain a question something like this: What historical American of the nineteenth century has exerted the most powerful influence upon the destinies of his countrymen? And it is by no means impossible that the answer to that interrogatory may be thus written: Joseph Smith, the Mormon Prophet. And the reply, absurd as it doubtless seems to most men now living, may be an obvious commonplace to their descendants... The man who established a religion in this age of free debate, who was and is to-day accepted by hundreds of thousands as a direct emissary of the Most High, - such a rare human being is not to be disposed of by pelting his memory with unsavory epithets. Fanatic, imposter, charlatan, he may have been; but these hard names furnish no solution to the problem he presents to us. Fanatics and impostors are living and dying every day, and their memory is buried with them; but the wonderful influence which this founder of a religion exerted and still exerts throws him into relief before us, not as a rogue to be criminated, but as a phenomenon to be explained." (Robert L. Millet, "Joseph Smith: Selected Sermons and Writings")
Joseph came under attacks from the time he made his vision public and the Book of Mormon translation. The attacks to his work and his personal character continue today in various degrees and forms. Sadly, none of his detractors provides me with the certainty I seek about the nature of God as taught in the Bible better than Joseph Smith. Some Christians insist that the Bible contains all what God intended for us to know. But, with so many opinions concerning the Bible, I'm left wondering what the real truth is. Joseph Smiths detractors don't offer me the level of clarity that Joseph provides.
Next we’ll move to something I think you’ll find interesting. At least I hope so.

Notes for Chapter 3 (Book of Mormon):

1. Solid evidence providing a proof that Polynesians made contact with pre-Columbian America:
a. "Many mata'a have appeared in Mapuche collections, sometimes associated with other Easter Island artifacts (stone polished adzes 'toki' and stone pillows 'ngarua') of suspicious origin, and there are at least three of them found in archaeological sites but they all lack firm provenience. The next reference is the Mapuche word for the old stone polished axes, 'toki,' a word that was widely spread from Southeast Asia as far as the Mapuche area in South America (Imbelloni, 1928). 'Toki' in Chile were functional axes (mainly adzes in Polynesia), the title for the warrior chiefs and their symbols of rank (tokicura, an adze-like stone pendant). There is even a reference for a Maori chant when cutting trees with toki which, as it has been said, was textually preserved in a Mapuche tale (ibid, 1931)."
(Transpacific Contacts: The Mapuche Connection, Ramirez, Jose Miguel.

1990/91. from Rapa Nui Journal Vol. 4 Nº 4: 53-55;

http://www.pvs.hawaii.org/rapanui/mapuche.html)
(b) (2007) Recent scientific findings involving chicken bone (alive 600 or 700 years ago) is making it more convincing that America-Polynesia contacts were made and traversing the huge ocean distances was well within the abilities of early mariners. This study will appear in proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Its lead author is New Zealand anthropologist Alice Storey.
2. Transpacific Contacts: The Mapuche Connection, Ramirez, Jose Miguel. 1990/91. from Rapa Nui Journal Vol. 4 Nº 4: 53-55;

http://www.pvs.hawaii.org/rapanui/mapuche.html

3. Marco Polo Go to China, Frances Wood, Westview Press, Jan 1, 1998; Wood writes about assertions that Marco Polo never visited the Far East. Whether those assertions are true or not, Wood quoted several references that show a European-Chinese contact before Marco Polo ever set foot in China,
4. In his controversial book "1421: The Year China Discovered the World," British author and ex-Royal Navy officer Gavin Menzies announced to the world that the Chinese and not Columbus had actually discovered America.
5. The Lost Civilizations of North America

http://www.lostcivilizationdvd.com/

QUESTION: “Is there evidence of relatively advanced civilizations existing in ancient North America?” ANSWER: “Most Americans have no idea that ancient cities with advanced architectures once dotted the ancient North American landscape. It is estimated that there once existed over 200,000 cities, structures and mounds across the continent. Monk's Mound in the ancient site of Cahokia, across from St. Louis, has a footprint bigger than the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, and Cahokia’s population was estimated to be greater than that of London or Rome. Some sites still existing, like the Newark Earthworks in Ohio, reveal a culture that was very sophisticated in its knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.”
6. African Origin of Civilization, Cheikh Anta Diop, Lawrence Hill Books, 1974, p.47
7. Jeff Lindsay's “LDS FAQ: Mormon Answers”

http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/FQ_BMProb2.shtml

“We must not be rash in assuming that all translated names of plants and animals or other physical objects describe the same things we think of today in 20th century America. Names in many languages are ambiguous and difficult to translate with certainty. For example, the Hebrew word for horse, "sus," has a root meaning of "to leap" and can refer to other animals as well - including the swallow. Hebrew "teo" typically means "wild ox" but has also been applied to a type of gazelle. The general Hebrew word for ox is "aluph," which has a root meaning of "tame" or "gentle" that could be applied to describe a human friend as well (J. L. Sorenson, Review of Books on the Book of Mormon, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1994, p. 345) - could it also describe a tapir? One Hebrew word for sheep, "zemer," has been translated as "mountain sheep" and "rock-goat" in different Bible versions, while Sorenson notes that one Jewish scholar says it means antelope.”
8. Brigham Young University - Maxwell Institute

http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/publications/books/?bookid=71&chapid=767

“Among the many amazing facts about the Book of Mormon is how little time it took for Joseph Smith to translate it. Recent research has shown more clearly than ever before that the Book of Mormon as we now have it was translated in a stunningly short amount of time. There was no time for outside research, rewriting, or polishing. Many contemporaneous historical documents sustain and validate the accuracy of Joseph Smith's account of the coming forth of the Book of Mormon.”
9. Ethnic Diversity in America before Columbus suggests prehistoric old world contacts

http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/ethnic/ethnic1.htm

"Archeologists and anthropologists have long suspected that peoples of the Old World had made contact with the Americas many centuries before Columbus"
10. "In the main, Polynesian families tend to be patrilineal rather than matrilineal though family headship frequently passed to and through first-born or otherwise high-ranking women." (The Journal of Pacific History, Sept, 1997 by Niel Gunson)
11. A program entitled "DaVinci and the Mystery of the Shroud" showed convincing evidence that the shroud is a fraud, and that it alleged that the Renaissance genius Leonardo da Vinci was involved in the rouse.
12. Derek Freeman, Margaret Mead and Samoa, p.181: "These texts reveal a concept of a supreme being, which far from being vague, as Williams had supposed, is to a remarkable degree for a preliterate people theologically sophisticated and mature. Indeed, so impressed was Powell with the "monotheism" of the Samoan myth of creation that he was led to conjecture that "those who had handed it down, from father to son, from time immemorial, as and inviolable trust," must have been "closely allied to the original possessors of the Mosaic record."
13. William Sullivan, Secret of the Incas, Crown Publishers, Inc. 1996, p. 301, "The Inca Empire was the outward manifestation of an experiment in sympathetic magic...As the drama of Andean history built toward its foreordained inundation of sorrows, the only glimmer of salvation lay with the guttering flame of the Fifth Sun...If Time was merciless, then it must be stopped."
14. Could there be hints found in Native American myths of the Lehi migration? I think that there might be. Take for example the Aztec migration myth: "As illustrated in the pages of the Codex Boturini, the Aztecs left their island homeland of Aztlan in the year 1 Flint and canoed across the lake of Culhuacan where they erected a crude temple to their patron deity Huitzilopochtli (Boone 1991:125-127). Eight groups, each identified by a house, a seated leader, and a name sign, left together on this great migration journey. Also accompanying them were four tribal leaders, or god-bearers, one of whom carried on his back an image Huitzilopochtli in the form of a mummy bundle and wearing a hummingbird helmet." (Landscape and Power in Ancient Meso-America, Rex Koontz, Kathryn Rees-Taylor Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 2001. pp.30-31)
15. Derek Freeman, Margaret Mead and Samoa, Harvard University Press, 1983, p.122. - "Indeed, so crucial is genealogy to the traditional hierarchies of Samoan communities and districts that the unauthorized recitation of genealogies is strictly forbidden..."
16. "Dr. Beauchamp once wrote: 'The Onandagas have not move over twenty miles in two hundred and fifty years, yet how much their tongue has changed in half that time! A migration to new and distant homes would have produced many new words, and then the language would have remained much the same for a time, waiting for other disturbing causes.' Clearly if any conditions could favor linguistic change it would be the complete isolation of an initially small band of people in an extensive and entirely new environment." (Studies of the Book of Mormon, Brigham D. Madsen, University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1985, pp.41-42)
17. History of Machu Picchu, University of Colorado at Denver,

http://carbon.cudenver.edu/stc-link/machupicchu/history.htm

18. "This 'cave' (really a cave-like rock shelter located in Northwestern Oklahoma close to the Colorado line), as well as others like it in the vicinity, was first recorded by Gloria Farley after her visit to the site in June 1978. She especially remarked upon the Anubis figure you see here as well as the figure with the rayed head surmounting the "cube-in-perspective" or '3-D Cube' (as some have called it). Besides the Egyptian motifs, she also noted the ogam-like strokes and a number of other apparent Celtic connections." Translation of the ogam by B. Fell indicated that the site was used for Celtic rites. (Buchanan, Donal, and Buchanan, Ann; "The Anubis Cave in Old World Iconography," ESRS Bulletin, 18:27, October 1991.) ESRS = Early Sites Research Society. (From Science Frontiers #82, JUL-AUG 1992. © 1992-2000 William R. Corliss; http://www.science-frontiers.com/sf082/index.htm)
19. See also Derek Freeman, Margaret Mead and Samoa, Harvard University Press, 1983, p.179-180.
20. The Book of Hirum, Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas, HarperCollins Publishers, Hammersmith, London, 2003
21. "The Ilocabs were 'seers,' perhaps in the sense of scouts, and were placed in outpost positions." (The Quiche Mayas of Utatlan, Robert M. Carmack, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1981, p.62)
22. "The Tamubs and Ilocabs, as suggested by their names, performed the auxiliary services of military communication (tamub, "drummer") and intelligence (ilocab, "seer" or "scout")." (Landscape and Power in Ancient Mesoamerica, p.72)
23. "The name Tangaloa (and variants) has caused more discussion than that of any other Polynesian deity. E.S.C. Handy, in his study of Polynesian religion, suggested a Chinese origin and late entry into Polynesia. Hank Driessen has suggested the meaning 'long jaw' which, if not the origin, would have been a play on words regarding the sacrifice-eating maw of the shark god. Another scholar has suggested that Tagaloa as creator was a post-European-contact introduction into Samoa, an unlikely development since the Manu'a stories, linked with lineage history, appear to be of considerable antiquity. However, as Derek Freeman, Futa Helu, 'Okusitino Mahina and others assert, there is good reason to believe that Tagaloa was introduced or reintroduced into Samoa as a sky god from the east, hence his modern equation with the Christian Jehovah. The historical evolution would seem to be that Tangaloa was originally a sea god (Lord of the Ocean) from the Sanguir Islands north of Sulawesi who reached the Society Islands via Samoa in late prehistoric times. (Great families of Polynesia: inter-island links and marriage patterns; The Journal of Pacific History, Sept, 1997 by Niel Gunson) That assertion could also be made of an American origin of Tagaloa. The Mayan god Tlaloc is depicted to reside in a watery paradise, Tlalocan. (Martin Brennan, The Hidden Maya, p.140)
24. "A most important feature of the Quiches' view of their world was its animalistic character. All things were alive and capable of acting upon all other things. The howling of jaguars or lions in the mountains could be interpreted as either the animals themselves or the priest-leaders symbolically linked with them. Powerful men could transform themselves into the animals magically related to them." (The Quiche Mayas of Utatlan", Robert M. Carmack, 1934, p.82)
25. The burial rites of the Peruvian Indians, as observed by Father Cobo in the 15th century, are very Similar to Egyptian rites. Inca Religion and Customs, Father Bernabe Cobo, p.250, translated by Roland Hamilton.
26. Concerning I Samuel 28: 3-35, "Oesterley and Robinson comment on the significance of this story: 'Nobody will deny that this narrative is an important illustration of the belief of the early Israelites concerning the departed. They continue to live, they remember, they foresee; they can leave whatever place it is in which they abide; and they can return to the world, in a certain sense.'" (Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas, The Book of Hirum, p. 173)
27. E. Theodore Mullen, Jr. The Assembly of the Gods: The Divine Council in Canaanite and Early Hebrew Literature. Harvard Semitic Monograph Series No. 24, Scholar's Press: 1980, ISSN 0073-0637.
28. "The k'alel was a 'courtier' who attended the ajpop in public matters as a chief judge and counselor. His role was to explain, question, witness, and denounce and so assist the ajpop in making important decisions." (The Quiche Mayas of Utatlan, p.171) 26. Inca Religion and Customs, Father Bernabe Cobo, University of Texas Press, Austin, p.108 (Translated and edited by Roland Hamilton)
29. Inca Religion and Customs, Father Bernabe Cobo, University of Texas Press, Austin, p.108 (Translated and edited by Roland Hamilton)
30. Mitochondrial DNA is passed only from mothers to their offspring. Because scientists know how quickly this DNA accumulates errors, they can estimate roughly how many years it took to accumulate the changes.
31. http://www.world-mysteries.com/sci_1.htm

DNA analysis on Native Americans

"Modern Genetic Research Confirming Cayce's Story. This section adapted from Mound Builders: Edgar Cayce's Forgotten Record of Ancient America by Gregory L. Little (August 2001).
An Unknown and Unexpected Migration Group Confirmed - "In 1997, a fifth mtDNA haplogroup was identified in Native Americans, This group, called '"X," is present in three percent of living Native Americans. Haplogroup X was not then found in Asia, but was found only in Europe and the Middle East where two to four percent of the population carry it. In those areas, the X haplogroup has primarily been found in parts of Spain, Bulgaria, Finland, Italy, and Israel."
32. Steve Olson, Mapping Human History, Discovering the Past Through Our Genes, p.202: "The ancestors of the earliest Americans migrated to the New World from central and eastern Asia, according to comparisons of Asian and Native American mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosomes. One type of mitochondrial DNA found in some Native Americans, haplotype X, seems to have originated in Europe more than 10,000 years ago, traveling across either northern Asia or the North Atlantic to reach the Americas."
33. Richard Lloyd Anderson, "Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses", Deseret Book Company, Salt Lake City, UT, 1981
34. (a) Ethan Smith, "Views of the Hebrews", Poultney, NY, 1823. In his book, Ethan Smith constantly refers the reader to artifacts and discoveries that were basis for his book.
(b) http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/publications/review/?vol=9&num=1&id=247
35. Fawn Brodie, "No Man Knows My History", p.67. "Scholars of American literary history have remained persistently uninterested in the Book of Mormon. Their indifference is the more surprising since the book is one of the earliest examples of frontier fiction, the first long Yankee narrative that owes nothing to English literary fashions."

CHAPTER 4: ASTRONOMY – A possible link to Andean priest astronomers