488 F. Gaspani – Gendered Organizations. The Case of Italian
Astrophysics
interactions based on the sexual division of labor and on gender
expectations»
(Gherardi & Poggio, 2001, p. 257)
.
Within organizations, gender division is historically rooted in cultural
systems of meanings and ideas about what is “feminine” and “masculine”,
two concepts constructed as oppositional, dichotomous and hierarchical
where the second one is (usually) privileged. In these contexts, women relate
to practices and models of action that point to social norms and
representations associated to gender roles and to the system of constraints
and opportunities each gender has to deal with. Their identity as women-
scientists is the result of processes that act interactively on different levels
and spheres of life: subjectivities and gender belonging; the images which
women and men express and how they are perceived; the relations and
practices that guide organizational and work activities; the behaviours of the
management – a staff of male directors – and their impact on the system of
careers. In these processes, gender stereotypes
(Camussi & Leccardi, 2005)
have the function to support and legitimize the social order determining and
reinforcing the meaning of “being” a woman or a man in everyday life and
in the workplace.
In Italy, the astrophysical profession can follow two possible career
paths: academic departments or research institutes – since 2003
Observatories and Authorities of the National Research Council have
merged into a single institute named National Institute of Astrophysics
(INAF). University departments and INAF Institutes maintain consolidated
relations in order to cooperate and develop research and educational
activities. The institutes taken as a reference for this study are of both types.
The role of gender in scientific organizations is investigated through the
analysis of the narratives of their members, that make possible to understand
how scientific culture is shaped, gendered practices are legitimated and
identities are constructed in (and outside) the workplace. The analysis draws
on a qualitative study in which forty astrophysics (twenty men and twenty
women) were interviewed. The interviewees were selected among the
research staff at different professional levels – L4: post-doc/fellowships; L3:
researchers;
L2:
associate
astronomers/professors;
L1:
full
astronomers/professors. Each person answers to a semi-directed interview
Géneros – Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 3(3) 489
focusing on professional experience and on the system of representation
(Farr & Moscovici, 1984)
of science and its actors. The qualitative data are
analysed favouring a thematic approach with the aim of highlighting the
recurring and cross elements of the narratives gathered, rather than keeping
the vertical structure of individual experiences.
In the following sections, a selection of extracts taken from the
qualitative analysis of the interviews is presented. These fragments are not
representative of all the opinions collected, nor are they intended to outline
inappropriate generalizations or to propose an exhaustive analysis of the
explored topics. They were rather chosen as examples of scientists’
statements, considered to be significant illustrations of how gender
differences are constructed and maintained by the discursive and relational
practices of men and women.
Rising through the Hierarchy
Constitutive elements of gender segregation in the workplace are
discrimination against women in promotions and the gradual spreading apart
between their careers and those of male colleagues. According to Luciano
(1993, my translation)
, careers have multiple dimensions:
There is a demographic dimension, concerning the structure and the
number of positions. There is an institutional dimension which is
constituted of meanings, of mechanisms of control and legitimacy,
of rules that define the behaviour allowed, the foundations of
authority, the decision-making procedures, the value-criteria to
measure performance and rewards. (...) There is an interactive
dimension which consists of daily adaptations and face-to-face
relationships through which the rules are interpreted, modified, re-
invented and individuals give meaning to their stories, build and
test their self, realize their aims. There is also a subjective
dimension, which consists of adjustments and transitions that
alternate in the course of adult life and that may (or may not)
coincide with the organizational career marked by passages of
status, role changes, pay increases.
(p.56)
490 F. Gaspani – Gendered Organizations. The Case of Italian
Astrophysics
Thinking about women’s scientific careers means trying to read the
current situation both in its factual aspects and for the cultural and symbolic
significance that accompanies the female figure in research and in society.
The career system refers to issues regarding professional mechanisms and
the maintenance of membership in organization. Its activities can be
clustered into the functions of entry (human resource planning, recruiting
and selection), development (socialization, training, and promotions) and
exit (retirement, resignations and dismissal)
(Sonnenfeld, 1989)
. Regarding
the entry and the development phases, public competition represents the
main selection tool, although all interviewees believe that it is not an
objective manner for the recruitment of professionals. In fact, informal
networks in scientific organizations have an important role, especially if
personal ties are stable and have “sponsors”, i.e. prominent personalities
operating at higher hierarchical levels. Despite strong competition and the
existence of a scoring system – designed to make the access to organizations
more open and fair – sponsors are able to assist their postgraduate students
or subordinates in their careers. In the interviewees’ opinion, public
competitions are spoiled because of the social relationships of the candidates
or their membership of particular scientific groups, and not because of
gender. However, as we will see later, candidates’ gender and the “quality”
of their social relations may be somehow connected.
Regarding scientists’ recruitment and career transitions through public
competition, it should be underlined that, in order to achieve equal
opportunities, public authorities have at their disposal several tools, for
instance reserving at least one third of the posts among the members of the
selection committees for women. The women-astrophysics interviewed –
although they pointed out, in some cases, not to completely appreciate such
“forcing” – are in favour of the application of this rule, complaining that this
often remains unnoticed
(INAF, 2010a)
and that the boards, being largely
composed by men, may contribute to foreclose women from professional
promotions. This kind of practices and decisions reflect the fact that within
scientific organizations decision-making power is mostly in the hands of
men, especially as far as career mechanisms are concerned. On this point, it
is also noted that, for example, the Board of Directors of INAF has not
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