Géneros – Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 3(3) 493
discourse, their visibility (success and acceptance) as a leader entails
disappearing as a woman through the acceptation of masculine ideals
(Binns,
2010)
.
In order to move to the top of organizations, women have to understand
the organizational culture and develop suitable coping strategies, finding
individualised means of survival. Some studies have examined the reasons
why women who reach positions of power tend not to work in favor of other
women. There are two references in particular: “tokenism” and the “queen
bee syndrome”. Tokenism is a theory based on interactions and numerical
proportions within a group. When there is a large preponderance of one
group over another, the minority-group members are called tokens because
they are typically treated as symbols of their category rather than as
individuals
(Kanter, 1977)
. Moreover, in situations in which the borders
among groups – between men and women – are somewhat permeable, only a
few members of the minority group will manage to gain access to non-
disadvantaged positions. This explains why single individuals tend to
disassociate themselves from the disadvantaged groups and to embark on
personal routes – therefore unfavorable to the ingroup – instead of collective
actions. The “queen bee syndrome” also shows female behaviour
unfavorable to other women. In this pattern, women who have attained
senior positions do not use their power either to assist struggling young
women or to change the system – tacitly validating it
(Camussi & Leccardi,
2005)
.
Women at the top want to remain “unique” and they tend to
preserve their privileges... and they also feel under pressure
because they think they have to prove themselves more than men...
women are always competitive with each other... they are probably
more male chauvinist than men. (Woman5, Level4).
Women at the top may have prejudices towards other women... if
they had to make sacrifices and to conform to a certain kind of
behaviour they could say “Why should I help other women?” (M6,
L4).
494 F. Gaspani – Gendered Organizations. The Case of Italian
Astrophysics
In a male-dominated workplace, the pervasive rules embedded in the
organizational facts collide with the women’s paths to emancipation,
pushing them to conform to particular ideas, behaviours and practices to be
accepted in the scientific field. For a woman to become a leader, «it is then
necessary to transcend the normative (ideas about) women’s roles because of
the incompatibility between management and what is stereotypically
ascribed to women»
(Alvesson & Billing, 2009, p. 60)
. However, if women
who wield leadership in accordance with gender role stereotypes are other-
perceived as “inadequate” (like women at lower positions), assertive and
forthright women are perceived, instead, as aggressive or “over-the-top” and
are characterized by perpetuating sexist behaviours. These viewpoints
reiterate a stereotyped view of sexual difference due to the ambivalence that
marks female subjects, which are confronted by the conflicting logics of
public (work-related) and private (family-related) life.
We must also distinguish the scientific knowledge from the social capital
linked to the workplace, that is «the set of the current and potential resources
linked to the possession of a stable network of more or less institutionalized
relationships (...) and to the belonging to a group as a set of agents not only
provided of common properties but also joined by permanent and useful
relationships»
(Bourdieu, 1980, p. 3, my translation)
. Highlighting the
importance of social networks to find and change jobs, Granovetter
(1973,
1974)
emphasizes “weak” ties – acquaintances at work, friends of friends –
which include a greater access to new information because they involve
people coming from different social circles. Instead, “strong” ties convey
redundant information since the members of the network are similar to each
other and belong to the same social circles. In a male-dominated
organizational structure there are important differences between men and
women in relation to access and mobilization of social capital. The men-
astrophysicists preparing to climb the professional hierarchy appear to
benefit mainly from informal networks, using a social capital structured in
weak ties – i.e. those with other male colleagues – typical of a system of co-
optation and male-domination. On the contrary, for women-scientists,
simply having working contacts with individuals who hold higher positions
do not lead to a rapid increase in their employment status. For this to
Géneros – Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 3(3) 495
happen, they have to rely on strong ties, such as a marriage with a man-
astrophysicist. If it is plausible to assume that every member of a family can
take advantage of the resources accumulated by another, it is admissible to
think that having a successful partner implies the advantage of being able to
reach a variegated and rich basket of resources to which one could not
otherwise access, and that would increase the chances of mobility
(Zajczyk
2002)
.
Some women in astrophysics are wives or partners of very
powerful men-astrophysicists. Sometimes they don’t have an
impeccable curriculum vitae, but they have reached high
professional levels! (W1, L4).
There is a difference between women-astrophysicists married with
men-astrophysicists and those who are not married with a man-
astrophysicists! I have the impression that at least some of them
have had more success thanks to a little help... (W7, L3).
If the “double presence”
2
of women in the family and at work can be a
hindering factor that prevents women to conduct their scientific work with
dedication (see paragraph below), the creation of a family, or even a simple
“flirtation”, with the “right” man may allow women to climb the
occupational hierarchy faster.
In some situations, when leaders are men, there are women who
climb the hierarchy quickly for unknown reasons, even if they
don’t reach senior levels.... Without going as far as talking about
“prostitution”, I note the existence of such phenomena... (M1, L3).
The sexual dimension is a sensitive area and it is not easy to interpret.
The interviews also reveal experiences of sexual harassment
3
against women
in the workplace, which occur especially during the early years of the
profession, when mentoring, defined as a positive action, is an essential tool
for understanding the functioning of the scientific system. According to the
interviewees, in some cases when a powerful personality decides to become
the mentor or “sponsor” of a young woman, his actual function is not limited
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