History of Philosophy and Christian Thought
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Early Christian ThoughtI. Original Opponents of Christianity
II. Second Century Apologetics: "Preaching of Peter," Quadratus, Aristides, "The Letter to Diognetus," Justin Martyr, Tatian, Melito, Theophilus, Athenagoras.
III. Irenaeus (d. around 200) 1. Bishop of Lyons (modern France), but probably born in Smyrna, Asia Minor. Heard Polycarp. He belongs, therefore, to the tradition of "Asian theology" (Polycarp, Papias, Ignatius) which may have begun with the ministry of "John" (the apostle? "the elder"?) at Ephesus. In general, this tradition displays more biblical insight than most other post apostolic theology of the first two centuries. Through this tradition, possibly, and possibly also through his confrontation with heretics, Irenaeus came to a keener appreciation for the distinctiveness of Christianity than did the apologists considered above. 2. Opponents a. Gnostics, who taught a popularized "chain of being" philosophy (unknowable God, chain of mediators, evil matter). Cf. the more sophisticated system of Plotinus. b. Marcion, who denied the canonicity of the O.T. and much of the New in the interest of a misinterpreted Paulinism. 3. Good emphases a. Scripture (1) Canonicity (cf. Gaffin's lectures on Irenaeus' influence) (2) Authority (3) Sufficiency vs. speculation (4) Perspicuity opposed allegorical use of Scripture; developed a kind of "biblical theology." (5) Necessity (a) Emphasizes the ignorance of gnostics and others who derive their ideas apart from Scripture. (b) Critique of Platonic doctrine of reminiscence i) If all of us have forgotten the world of forms, how can we trust Plato's recollection of it? ii) So knowledge of God is not through reminiscence but through revelation. b. God: Irenaeus pictures him as concrete and living, as over against the abstract principles of the heretics. God is clearly known in revelation. Here a definite advance over the earlier apologists. c. The History of Redemption: God is very much involved with creation actively working out his purposes. Irenaeus rejects explicitly the non Christian notion of transcendence, that God is incapable of direct interaction with his world. d. Direct creation: Hence, God needs no semi divine mediator to create the world. He does it himself, by his Word and Wisdom, ex nihilo. Another advance. e. No subordinationism in intertrinitarian relationships. (cf. Van Til on the apologetic importance of the equal ultimacy of the one and many). f. Internal critique of gnosticism: Are the emanations of one substance with the supreme being or not? (1) If they are, then how can they be ignorant of the supreme being? (Pushes the implications of rationalism.) (2) If they are not, then how can any mediation convey true knowledge, identity of substance being required for understanding? (Pushes the implications of irrationalism.) (3) Comment: some good features here, as in similar arguments by earlier thinkers. Weaknesses mitigated by Irenaeus' general emphasis on a distinctively Scriptural orientation. 4. Weaknesses a. Weak doctrine of sin; tends to confuse it with finitude. b. Universal salvation Christ in his incarnation united all flesh to God (cf. earlier notion of logos spermatikos). c. Uses language of deification when speaking of salvation; but how far is that to be pressed, especially in virtue of II Pet. 1:4? d. Free will (autexousion, cf. earlier apologists.
IV. Tertullian (Carthage, c. 160 220). 1. Background: First significant theological works in Latin; opposed gnostics, Marcion, docetists. Became a Montanist (early "charismatic" group later declared heretical). Influenced by Stoic materialism. 2. Epistemology a. On Prescription of Heretics: The heretics have no right even to enter debate with the church; for the church has the apostolic rule of faith in Scripture, the only criterion of Christian truth. Note presuppositional thrust. Hence, "What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" b. On the Flesh of Christ: Our concepts of possibility do not apply to God. Thus even though the incarnation appears to be impossible (a change in an unchangeable being), we may believe it. The death, burial and resurrection of Christ are to be believed because absurd and impossible.
(3) In context he argues that the cross and resurrection are possible because of the divine transcendence. He did not think that these were impossible. c. Vs. Plato: Sense experience is not to be despised. Sense and intellect are mutually dependent. d. Apology: Christians get their ethical principles from divine revelation, not mere human authority. e. Summary: A real advance in epistemology. Stands firm on Scripture as Irenaeus, and more than Irenaeus sees this as the presupposition of all debate. the affirmation of something that will seem utterly absurd to those outside the faith. Nor does Tertullian exalt reason over sense, as if the final truth were to be found in the human reasoning faculty. Rather, all faculties work together under revelation (cf. Doctrine of the Knowledge of God). 3. Theology a. First to formulate the Latin terminology for the trinitarian and Christological distinctions (substance, person, nature), but tell into subordinationism due to influence of the logos speculation. b. The Soul (1) Critique of Plato: (a) If the soul is essentially divine, whence ignorance? (b) If union with the body eliminates knowledge, how can anything be known? (c) Note here T. presses the implications of non-Christian rationalism and irrationalism. (2) The soul is corporeal (note Stoic influence) but simple. (3) It is not eternal, as in Plato, nor is there inherent irrationality in it. (Good). (4) It has independence from God (autexousion) (Bad) (5) It has very little being; its closeness to non being introduces the possibility of sin (Bad confuses sin with finitude). (6) Though man is always free, nevertheless our union with Adam transmits an uncontrollable subjection to temptation. It is transmitted with the natural generation of the soul (traducianism). 5. Other Apologetic Elements a. God is known through his works, by man's innate knowledge, and through Scripture (Apology). b. Evils, ugliness of idolatry. c. Christians are loyal, beneficial to the state. d. Old Testament prophecy testifies to Christ (An Answer to the Jews) 6. Evaluation a. Much more self consciously Christian in epistemology, yet not always consistent in that commitment.
V. Clement of Alexandria (155 220) 1. Background: Genial, tolerant fellow, something of a philosophical dilettant. Wandered from place to place in search of truth, settled down in the catechetical school in Alexandria which he later came to head. Read Plato, various church fathers, but not Tertullian. 2. Christianity and Philosophy a. While it doesn't produce faith, it does support it, clarify it, make it attractive. b. Faith intuits the first principles of philosophy, so faith is the indispensable basis of philosophy. (This is general faith, however, not specifically Christian faith. Clement here is following Plato and Aristotle who said that first principles could not be demonstrated by reason.) c. Philosophy is God's covenant with the Greeks and the law to the Jews (the river of truth has many streams). d. Of course, not all philosophy is worthy of the name (e.g., sophists). e. So, vs. orthodoxastai people who reject all philosophy in the interest of orthodox doctrine. 3. God and the World a. Characteristically uses impersonal vocabulary. b. God nameless; can't speak of him properly; He is "beyond being." c. Still, certain predicates form a kind of scaffolding for the avoiding of error. Negative names are best. d. Can know God, properly, only by mystical experience. e. Logos intermediary, subordinate. Universal revelation 4. Man, Redemption a. Free will (autexousion) emphasized. b. Adam: not created perfect, but adapted to the reception of virtue. c. Denies that all know God by nature; affirms only that we are equipped to learn by ourselves. d. Moralistic account of man's need, the nature of salvation. 5. Evaluation a. A regression to a view like that of Justin Martyr, though somewhat more sophisticated.
VI. Origen (185 254) 1. Background: Studied philosophy with Ammonius Saccas at Alexandria who also taught Plotinus. Sought to join the martyrs in the persecution of 203, but forbidden. Enormous capacity for work. Great achievements in biblical scholarship as well as theology. Major apologetic work: Against Celsus. 2. Significance: Origen, Thomas Aquinas and F. Schleiermacher are probably the most important synthesis thinkers in the history of Christian theology. These three are each responsible for developing a synthesis between Christianity and the prevailing secular philosophies. In each of these three cases, the synthesis carried the mainstream of church thought along with it. Only a significant theological reformation could dislodge such a synthesis. In Origen's case, the synthesis was between neo-Platonism and Christianity. 3. Epistemology a. Scripture (1) Strong view of verbal inspiration. (2) This view negated by allegorical interpretation. In Origen's view, every text has three senses: (a) Somatic (literal) (b) Psychical (moral) (c) Pneumatic (speculative): at this point, Origen can make any text teach something consistent with Greek philosophy. (3) Apologetic purpose: to find in every text something worthy of God. If someone objects to the killing of the Canaanites, e.g., Origen can show him something philosophically profound in that very passage. b. Methods of knowing God (how to determine what Scripture means) (1) Synthesis finding causal origin for earthly realities. (2) Analysis "way of negation" strip away all properties not appropriate to God. E.g.: God is a Spirit, but as Spirit he is not material, as the stoics would suggest. (3) Analogy determining the proportion or extent to which an attribute applies to God. Though God is beyond all predication, some predicates are more true of him than others. It is more true, e.g., to say that God is just than to say he is unjust. (4) Note that these are autonomous processes, which govern exegesis, rather than letting themselves be governed by exegesis. 4. God a. He is Being, and beyond Being. b. Beyond predication, but conceived as personality. c. Trinity: (1) Origen formulates the terminology used for Trinitarian distinctions in the Greek speaking churches as did Tertullian for the Latin speaking churches. One ousia, three upostaseis. (2) Father and Son are one in being (en in John 10:30 = one thing). Cf. later term homoousios. (3) Yet the Son derives his being from the Father, and is subordinate in various ways. 5. Creation (by logos) a. Has been going on eternally; not a particular act as in the "literal" understanding of Genesis 1. b. Since God could not create evil, he created all things ethically equal. Some creatures fell of their own free will. c. People are born sick, poor, etc. because of sins in a previous life. 6. Redemption a. Jesus overcomes the hostile powers, teaches righteousness, gives us an example (no clear penal substitution). b. Hope of universal salvation, even of devils. (Note relation of rationalism to universalism; rationalism tends to eliminate particularities.) c. Because of free will, there might, even after the completion of redemption, be another fall. 7. Evaluation a. No appreciation at all for the antithesis between Christian and non Christian thought.
VII. Athanasius (290-373) 1. Background: Bishop of Alexandria from 328 until the end of his life. Fought valiantly to defend the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity even though persecuted by a church and imperial hierarchy which at times seemed wholly in the Arian camp. 2. Significance: Athanasius is the first great theological reformer, as Origen is the first great theological synthesizer. The Origenistic synthesis had borne bitter fruit in the Arian heresy, and Athanasius saw to the root of the problem, demolishing in effect not only Arianism, but to a great extent Origenism as well. 3. Arianism: Complicated issue. Essentially, an extreme form of subordinationism, virtually making the Son (logos) a creature of the Father. Slogan: "Once the Son was not." 4. Athanasius' Emphases a. Radical unity or God no second class divinity. b. Directness of God's relation to the world (Cf. Irenaeus, whose theology is very similar to that of Athanasius) (1) Creation God has no need of mediators to accomplish his work. He can touch the earth without fear of contamination. (2) Redemption: Only God can save. Grace. c. Some weaknesses in anthropology, free will, the mechanism of redemption. d. Basic arguments against Arians (basic religious points, not abstruse or philosophical) (1) They encourage worship of a creature (idolatry) (2) They make salvation dependent on a creature rather than wholly upon God. VIII. Augustine (354-430 A. D.)
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