The giant ehap review outline
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- Bu səhifədəki naviqasiya:
- Equality
- Jean d’Alembert
- Immanuel Kant
- Cesare Beccaria
- Literature of the Enlightenment
- Music of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment*The Definition of the Enlightenment* - The Enlightenment was a period of time in which many intellectuals, who were called philosophs, began to question the traditions of society and to look at the universe in a scientific, critical light. - During the Enlightenment, all the trademark aspects of European society were exposed to criticism and analysis through reason. No institution was spared, for even the church itself was attacked by the cynical philosophs. Though the Enlightenment began as a movement that only reached the intellectual elite of society, its repercussions would eventually reach and have a big impact on society as a whole. *The Beliefs of the Philosophs* - The philosophs, a group of intellectuals who supported the ideals of the Enlightenment, stood for a series of beliefs, which they stood for, regardless of the cost. These ideas included:
*The Famous Philosophs* - Voltaire à our favorite! Voltaire is often regarded as the leading figure of the Enlightenment. A talented writer, Voltaire stood for many of the ideals of the period. First of all, he greatly admired science and helped to popularize it. In 1738, he wrote Elements of the Philosophy of Newton, which attempted to make Newton’s discoveries understandable. Voltaire greatly admired the English, for he felt their society had allowed greats like Locke, Bacon and Newton to rise, and in 1734 he wrote the Philosophical Letters on the English, which celebrated English toleration. Also, Voltaire absolutely hated religion (actually he didn’t hate religion per se, but he really hated intolerance) and he wrote The Philosophical Dictionary in 1764, which stated that organized religion bred intolerance and superstition. Voltaire was a deist, and felt religion should be a private matter. Throughout his life, Voltaire faced persecution and censorship, and as a result, he was a dedicated advocator of intellectual and religious freedom. Voltaire was a brilliant satirical writer (Candide) and literary critic who poked fun at every element of society (which is why all his books were banned). - Diderot à most famous for his Encyclopedia, Diderot also wrote a series of novels, plays, math theorems, and works on religion and morality. His most original works examined the role of passion in human personality and in morality. Diderot often felt that his contemporaries overemphasized reason over passion. He also sometimes criticized religion, and ended up as an atheist. But his most important work was the Encyclopedia, which classified all human knowledge from the most common to the most complex. The aim of the book was to “change the general way of thinking.” The book treated religion w/artful satire, analyzing it like any other topic. Science was the core of the book, and scientific techniques and discoveries were presented in it. Economically, the Encyclopedia supported the Physiocratic view against trade restrictions. The Encyclopedia was banned in many places, but it was still distributed, and had a great impact on the intellectuals of Europe. - Jean d’Alembert à famous French mathematician. - Baron de Montesquieu à wrote The Spirit of the Laws a book that described an ideal system of government using checks and balances. He believed that societies and political institutions could be studied scientifically, and that a balanced government would lead to success. - David Humeà he was the empiricism who made that stupid argument about the tree falling in the forest. He hated dogma, and I mean really hated it. He went around proving how everybody was wrong. He was an atheist and he didn’t believe in any general knowledge, so who knows what he did believe in. Anyhow, he wrote Inquiry into Human Nature that criticized Christianity. - Adam Smith à that economist dude. Not that important. He only came up with an entire new philosophy on economics but that isn’t part of this chapter so look at the other outline! - Immanuel Kant à a brilliant philosopher, he stated that Hume woke him from his “dogmatic slumber” and believed that reality and perception were two different things. However, he believed that so long as it is organized by certain concepts, like cause and effect, science is still valid. - Cesare Beccaria à was an economist and penal reformer who wrote On Crimes and Punishments, which argued for human rights and humanitarianism. - Edward Gibbon à historian who criticized Christianity and held it responsible for the fall of the Roman Empire in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. *The Elite Culture of the Enlightenment* - During the Enlightenment, many new forms of elite culture developed. These developments had hardly any effect on the majority of the people, but the elite culture, united by French as a common language, bound together into a cosmopolitan world. - First of all, the elite began to travel around Europe. They looked at the cultural centers and cities, as well as the ancient monuments of antiquity. Cities were being spruced up during this time with the additions of amenities (like streetlights and public transportation) and two important new ideas, coffeehouses (where people could eat and talk) and shop windows (sparked commerce). - A so-called republic of letters began to develop (popularized by Pierre Bayle, who like religious toleration), in which journals and newspapers circulated among the elite. Though the republic was limited to the educated, all classes and backgrounds could join in. The elite also met in salons (philosophical party houses of the elite, very snobby and stylish) and academies both of which helped spread ideas and unite people. There, people could dispute their ideas and come up w/new ones. - Also, during this time, publishing increased tremendously and people began to read more. Traveling libraries were developed, as were journals and, most importantly, newspapers. There were new employment opportunities in bookselling and publishing, as well as the smuggling of so-called bad books, which ranged from Voltaire to pornography (i.e. anything that was banned). *Art, Literature, and Music* - Art of the Enlightenment à the art of the Enlightenment consisted of two competing styles, Rococo and Neoclassicism. Rococo was the art of the nobility, meaningless, w/out content, but very pretty, using bright, swirling colors, like Rubenism. Famous Rococo painters were Francois Boucher and Fragonard. Neoclassicism, on the other hand, favored line over color, and was all about drama, tension, emotion, content, and an imitation ancient style. The philosophs loved the NC, for they favored themes that the philosophs liked. Famous painter was Jacques Louis David. - Literature of the Enlightenment à this is where the modern novel was first developed, by Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding, both in England. The novel emerged as a new form of writing in which a story was told and characters were presented in a realistic social context filled with everyday problems. Another writer was Fanny Burney. Satire was also perfected during the Enlightenment, by brilliant writers like Jonathan Swift, and, naturally, good ol’ Voltaire. Also, during this time, romantic poetry was born. Before, poetry followed strict rules and was not very emotional or anything, but in the Enlightenment writers like William Wordsworth and Friedrich von Schiller made it all mushy. Poetry came to be a signature part of the new style, Romanticism. Johann von Goethe was a romantic poet who came to embody the entire period and whose masterpiece was called Faust. - Music of the Enlightenment à music really changed, and the symphony developed into what it is today. Pretty much, this was the work of Beethoven, Mozart and Hayden. After them, music also became much more passionate and was full of expression and emotion. *Popular Culture during the Enlightenment* - Popular culture was pretty much totally separate from the elite culture, and was not really that affected by it at all. At this level culture was still public recreation and oral tradition. - There was, however, some popular literature meant to be read aloud in the community. This consisted of religious material, almanacs, and literature for fun (stories). Mainly, popular writing actually fostered submissiveness, not rebellion, for it had a fatalistic acceptance of the status quo. - But the most important part of popular culture was the oral tradition, which consisted of the folktales and songs passed from generation to generation. These tales expressed the hardships and goals of the time, with themes like struggles to survive and magical happenings. - Though literacy rose a little, in rural areas it was still very low. Education was scarce, for few parents could allow their children to go to school while they were needed in the fields. Many of the elites, like Voltaire, did not believe that the masses should be educated, but even when the government tried to encourage education (Prussia, Austria) it did not really have a big result. Anyway, even when they went to school, the goals of elementary schooling were simply to instill religion and morality, show the value of hard work, and promote deference to superiors, not really to learn anything. - Lastly, popular culture included festivals and taverns (the salons for normal people) where common people could enjoy themselves and relax. Sports also became important during this time, and people began to attend sporting events more. Yüklə 386 Kb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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