Powerlessness
An important characteristic of the threshold stage is a sense of powerlessness
over what has befallen us. Such powerlessness is an inevitable consequence of
bereavement, but it also occurs with other nadir experiences such as addiction. A
person struggling with substance abuse often feels that he or she can do nothing
to overcome the dependence. This is reflected in the first step of Alcoholics
Anonymous, that ‘‘we admitted we were powerless over alcohol—that our lives
had become unmanageable’’ (Alcoholics Anonymous, 2002, p. 59). By reciting
this step, the recovering alcoholic recognizes that he or she has reached the
lowest point and wants to recover. James (1902/1997) also noted that the same
sense of powerlessness occurs when the crisis is a spiritual one.
Emptiness
A nadir event may abruptly cut us off from our past and our sense of
personhood that depends on the past. The familiar terrain of our life before the
event is gone, and we feel disconnected from the world around us. Various
terms have described this profound disconnection: Almaas (1986/2000) referred
to it as a deficient emptiness, Frankl (1946/1959) as an existential vacuum, and
Perls (1959/1969) as a desert or a sterile void (pointing out that it does not
necessarily remain sterile for long).
M
OVING ON OR
B
ECOMING
S
TUCK
After the Herald of Free Enterprise ferry sank in the English Channel in 1987,
claiming 193 lives, Joseph (2011) surveyed some of the survivors. While many
showed symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, he was astonished to find
that 43% reported positive changes in their lives following the disaster—almost
the same percentage as those reporting negative changes (46%). Using
passengers’ written responses as to how their lives had changed, he constructed
the Changes in Outlook Questionnaire (CiOQ; Joseph et al., 1993). The 26
items of the CiOQ measured both negative changes such as ‘‘my life has no
meaning anymore,’’ and positive ones such as ‘‘I value my relationships more
now’’ (p. 275). When the cruise ship Jupiter sank off Greece in 1988, claiming
four lives, Joseph et al. (1993) were able to confirm that the earlier results were
not an anomaly. Ninety-four percent of respondents agreed with the statement
that ‘‘I don’t take life for granted anymore,’’ and 91% with the statement that
‘‘I value my relationships much more now.’’ Eighty-eight percent agreed with
the statement that ‘‘I value other people more now,’’ and 71% with the
statement that ‘‘I’m a more understanding and tolerant person now’’ (p. 275).
Various investigators have discovered similar changes in persons undergoing
the nadir experience of bereavement. Braun and Berg (1994) analyzed extensive
interviews with ten mothers who experienced the unexpected loss of a child,
and found that respondents reported an increase in their understanding of
what was important in life. Milo (1997) interviewed eight mothers who had lost
76
The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2014, Vol. 46, No. 1
a child with a developmental disability. Six of these mothers felt they had
experienced personal transformation in the areas of priorities in life, their
identity, their relationships, their spirituality, and their view of the world. To
investigate such positive changes occurring in bereaved persons (and also
negative ones), Hogan, Greenfield, and Schmidt (2001) developed the Hogan
Grief Reaction Checklist (HGRC). The instrument contains 49 negative and 12
positive statements that respondents rate using a five-point Likert scale. An
example of a negative statement is: ‘‘My hopes are shattered,’’ while an
example of a positive statement is: ‘‘I care more deeply for others.’’ Using the
HGRC on a group of 586 bereaved adults (mostly mothers who had lost a
child), the authors found that these adults saw themselves as tougher, more
compassionate, more loving, more resilient, and more forgiving in the
aftermath of their loss. In short, they saw themselves as having been
transformed by the nadir experience of grief.
When Burt and Katz (1987) surveyed 113 rape survivors, they included in their
survey a list of 28 questions about ‘‘changes that come from my efforts to
recover’’ (p. 70). Items, which included ‘‘I believe my life has meaning,’’ and
‘‘I’m able to get my needs met’’ (p. 70), were rated on a seven-point Likert
scale. More than half the respondents agreed with 15 or more of the questions.
In the wake of devastating events, many people experience positive change and
growth. Tedeschi and Calhoun (1996) first used the term posttraumatic growth
to describe such positive change. They noted that survivors of trauma often
experience a deepening of relationships, a desire for more intimacy, greater
compassion, a sense of being strengthened by the experience, and a renewed
appreciation for life. However, not everyone will achieve growth and reach the
reincorporation stage. The widow, who years after her husband’s death,
continues to set a place for him at the dinner table, is clearly stuck in the
threshold stage. She has a loss orientation, rather than a restoration
orientation. What enables a person to move on, to focus on restoration, and
to enter the reincorporation stage?
Degree of Trauma
The degree of trauma may be an important factor. Tedeschi and Calhoun
(1996) used the Traumatic Stress Schedule (TSS; Norris, 1990) to measure the
degree of trauma suffered by 604 undergraduate psychology students in the
previous year. The TSS is a list of 14 to 26 questions (depending on the type of
event) regarding events such as assault, bereavement, and rape. Questions
included ‘‘how many loved ones died as a result of this incident?’’ and ‘‘did you
ever feel like your own life was in danger during the incident?’’ (p. 1717).
Tedeschi and Calhoun subjectively rated the respondents as suffering ‘‘no
trauma’’ or ‘‘severe trauma’’ (p. 465). They then created the Posttraumatic
Growth Inventory (PTGI) to measure positive change following trauma. The
PTGI includes 21 questions in five categories: relating to others, new
possibilities, personal strength, spiritual change, and appreciation of life.
Examples of characteristics that respondents rated on a six-point Likert scale
were: ‘‘a sense of closeness with others’’ and ‘‘knowing I can handle
Nadir Experience
77