Title: Spillover and pandemic properties of zoonotic viruses with high host plasticity Christine Kreuder Johnson1, Peta L. Hitchens1, Tierra Smiley Evans1, Tracey Goldstein1, Kate Thomas1, Andrew Clements2, Damien O

10, 533–4 (2004).

672. Rushton, J. O. et al. Tick-borne encephalitis virus in horses, Austria, 2011. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 19, (2013).

673. Kaiser, R. Tick-borne encephalitis in southwestern Germany. Infection 24, 398–9 (1996).

674. Takashima, I. Epidemiology of Tick-borne encephalitis in Japan. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 21, 81–90 (1998).

675. Cisak, E. et al. Prevalence of Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in samples of raw milk taken randomly from cows, goats, and sheep in eastern Poland. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 17, 283–286 (2010).

676. Khasnatinov, M. et al. Specific point mutations in the envelope protein of Tick-borne encephalitis virus enhance non-viraemic transmission efficiency in a tick vector. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 14, e372 (2010).

677. Balogh, Z. et al. Tick-borne encephalitis outbreak in Hungary due to consumption of raw goat milk. J. Virol. Methods 163, 481–5 (2010).

678. Lindhe, K. E. S., Meldgaard, D. S., Jensen, P. M., Houser, G. A. & Berendt, M. Prevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus antibodies in dogs from Denmark. Acta Vet. Scand. 51, 56 (2009).

679. Kim, S. Y. et al. Molecular evidence for tick-borne encephalitis virus in ticks in South Korea. Med. Vet. Entomol. 23, 15–20 (2009).

680. Lu, Z., Bröker, M. & Liang, G. Tick-borne encephalitis in mainland China. Vector borne zoonotic Dis. 8, 713–20 (2008).

681. Thorin, C. et al. Seroprevalence of Lyme Borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis in workers at risk, in eastern France. Médecine Mal. Infect. 38, 533–42 (2008).

682. Brinkley, C., Nolskog, P., Golovljova, I., Lundkvist, Å. & Bergström, T. Tick-borne encephalitis virus natural foci emerge in western Sweden. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 298, 73–80 (2008).

683. Daniel, M., Kříž, B., Danielová, V. & Beneš, Č. Sudden increase in Tick-borne encephalitis cases in the Czech Republic, 2006. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 298, 81–87 (2008).

684. Yaiw, K. C. et al. Tioman virus, a Paramyxovirus of bat origin, causes mild disease in pigs and has a predilection for lymphoid tissues. J. Virol. 82, 565–8 (2008).

685. Yaiw, K. C. et al. Serological evidence of possible human infection with Tioman virus, a newly described Paramyxovirus of bat origin. J. Infect. Dis. 196, 884–6 (2007).

686. Okamoto, H. et al. Species-specific TT viruses and cross-species infection in nonhuman primates. J. Virol. 74, 1132–1139 (2000).

687. Heroldová, M. et al. Tula virus in populations of small terrestrial mammals in a rural landscape. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 10, 599–603 (2010).

688. Clement, J., Frans, J. & Van Ranst, M. Human Tula virus infection or rat-bite fever? Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 22, 332–3; author reply 334–5 (2003).

689. Schultze, D., Lundkvist, A., Blauenstein, U. & Heyman, P. Tula virus infection associated with fever and exanthema after a wild rodent bite. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 21, 304–6 (2002).

690. Calzolari, M. et al. Evidence of simultaneous circulation of West Nile and Usutu viruses in mosquitoes sampled in Emilia-Romagna region (Italy) in 2009. PLoS One 5, e14324 (2010).

691. Chvala, S., Kolodziejek, J., Nowotny, N. & Weissenböck, H. Pathology and viral distribution in fatal Usutu virus infections of birds from the 2001 and 2002 outbreaks in Austria. J. Comp. Pathol. 131, 176–85 (2004).

692. Weissenböck, H. et al. Usutu virus activity in Austria, 2001–2002. Microbes Infect. 5, 1132–1136 (2003).

693. Weissenböck, H. et al. Emergence of Usutu virus, an African mosquito-borne Flavivirus of the Japanese Encephalitis virus group, Central Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8, 652–656 (2002).

694. Manarolla, G. et al. Usutu virus in wild birds in northern Italy. Vet. Microbiol. 141, 159–63 (2010).

695. Pecorari, M. et al. First human case of Usutu virus neuoinvasive infection, Italy, August-September 2009. Euro Surveill. 14, 5–6 (2009).

696. Cavrini, F. et al. Usutu virus infection in a patient who underwent orthotropic liver transplantation, Italy, August - September 2009. Euro Surveill. 14, 1–2 (2009).

697. Lelli, R. et al. Serological evidence of Usutu virus occurrence in north-eastern Italy. Zoonoses Public Health 55, 361–7 (2008).

698. Meister, T. et al. Serological evidence of continuing high Usutu virus (Flaviviridae) activity and establishment of herd immunity in wild birds in Austria. Vet. Microbiol. 127, 237–48 (2008).

699. Bakonyi, T. et al. Emergence of Usutu virus in Hungary. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45, 3870–4 (2007).

700. Chvala, S. et al. Monitoring of Usutu virus activity and spread by using dead bird surveillance in Austria, 2003-2005. Vet. Microbiol. 122, 237–45 (2007).

701. Busquets, N., Alba, A., Allepuz, A., Aranda, C. & Ignacio Nuñez, J. Usutu virus sequences in Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae), Spain. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14, 861–3 (2008).

702. Figuerola, J. et al. West Nile virus antibodies in wild birds, Morocco, 2008. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 15, (2009).

703. Buckley, A., Dawson, A. & Gould, E. A. Detection of seroconversion to West Nile virus, Usutu virus and Sindbis virus in UK sentinel chickens. Virol. J. 3, 71 (2006).

704. Auguste, A. J. et al. Isolation and phylogenetic analysis of Mucambo virus (Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex subtype IIIA) in Trinidad. Virology 392, 123–30 (2009).

705. Hommel, D., Heraud, J. M., Hulin, A. & Talarmin, A. Association of Tonate virus (subtype IIIB of the Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex) with encephalitis in a human. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30, 188–90 (2000).

706. Navarro, J.-C. et al. Postepizootic persistence of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Venezuela. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11, 1907–15 (2005).

707. Estrada-Franco, J. G. et al. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, southern Mexico. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 2113–21 (2004).

708. Weaver, S. C., Ferro, C., Barrera, R., Boshell, J. & Navarro, J.-C. Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 49, 141–74 (2004).

709. Aguilar, P. V et al. Genetic characterization of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus from Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru: identification of a new subtype ID lineage. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 3, e514 (2009).

710. Ferro, C. et al. Natural enzootic vectors of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Magdalena Valley, Colombia.pdf. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9, 49–54 (2003).

711. Quiroz, E., Aguilar, P. V, Cisneros, J., Tesh, R. B. & Weaver, S. C. Venezuelan equine encephalitis in Panama: fatal endemic disease and genetic diversity of etiologic viral strains. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 3, e472 (2009).

712. Maness, K. S. C. & Calisher, C. H. Eastern Equine Encephalitis in the United States , 1971 : Past and Prologue. Curr. Microbiol. 5, 311–316 (1981).

713. Lichty, B. D., Power, A. T., Stojdl, D. F. & Bell, J. C. Vesicular stomatitis virus: re-inventing the bullet. Trends Mol. Med. 10, 210–216 (2004).

714. Remmers, L. et al. Longitudinal studies in the epidemiology of vesicular stomatitis on Costa Rican dairy farms. Ann. New York Acad. Scinences 916, 417–430 (2000).

715. Hanson, R. P. The natural history of vesicular stomatitis. Bacteriol. Rev. 16, 179–204 (1952).

716. Letchworth, G. J. & Rodriguez, L. L. Review Vesicular Stomatitis. Vet. J. 157, 239–260 (1999).

717. Perez, A. M. et al. Spatial and phylogenetic analysis of vesicular stomatitis virus over-wintering in the United States. Prev. Vet. Med. 93, 258–64 (2010).

718. Drolet, B. S., Stuart, M. A. & Derner, J. D. Infection of Melanoplus sanguinipes grasshoppers following ingestion of rangeland plant species harboring Vesicular stomatitis virus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75, 3029–33 (2009).

719. Mead, D. G. et al. Black fly involvement in the epidemic transmission of vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus (Rhabdoviridae: Vesiculovirus). Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 4, 351–9 (2004).

720. Rainwater-Lovett, K., Pauszek, S. J., Kelley, W. N. & Rodriguez, L. L. Molecular epidemiology of Vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus from the 2004-2005 US outbreak indicates a common origin with Mexican strains. J. Gen. Virol. 88, 2042–51 (2007).

721. Rodrı́guez, L. L. Emergence and re-emergence of vesicular stomatitis in the United States. Virus Res. 85, 211–219 (2002).

722. Scherer, C. F. C. et al. Vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus (VSNJV) infects keratinocytes and is restricted to lesion sites and local lymph nodes in the bovine, a natural host. Vet. Res. 38, 375–390 (2007).

723. Diallo, M. et al. Mosquito vectors of the 1998-1999 outbreak of Rift Valley Fever and other arboviruses (Bagaza, Sanar, Wesselsbron and West Nile) in Mauritania and Senegal. Med. Vet. Entomol. 19, 119–26 (2005).

724. Mushi, E. Z., Binta, M. G. & Raborokgwe, M. Wesselsbron disease virus associated with abortions in goats in Botswana. J. Vet. Diagnostic Investig. 10, 191–191 (1998).

725. Guilherme, J. M., Gonella-Legall, C., Legall, F., Nakoume, E. & Vincent, J. Seroprevalence of five arboviruses in Zebu cattle in the Central African Republic. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 90, 31–3 (2000).

726. Urray, K. O. M., Ertens, E. M. & Espre, P. D. Review article West Nile virus and its emergence in the United States of America. Vet. Res. 41, (2010).

727. Kramer, L. D., Styer, L. M. & Ebel, G. D. A Global Perspective on the Epidemiology of West Nile Virus. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 53, 61–81 (2008).

728. Chevalier, V. et al. Environmental risk factors of West Nile virus infection of horses in the Senegal River basin. Epidemiol. Infect. 138, 1601–9 (2010).

729. Venter, M. & Swanepoel, R. West Nile virus lineage 2 as a cause of zoonotic neurological disease in humans and horses in southern Africa. Vector borne zoonotic Dis. 10, 659–64 (2010).

730. Campbell, G. L., Marfin, A. A., Lanciotti, R. S., Gubler, D. J. & Nile, W. Reviews West Nile virus. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2, 519–529 (2002).

731. America, S. West Nile Virus , Venezuela. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13, (2007).

732. Abad, R., Enríquez, R., Salcedo, C. & Vázquez, J. A. West Nile Virus in birds, Argentina. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14, 2006–2008 (2008).

733. Zacks, M. A. & Paessler, S. Encephalitic Alphaviruses. Vet. Microbiol. 140, 281–6 (2010).

734. Forrester, N. L., Kenney, J. L., Deardorff, E., Wang, E. & Weaver, S. C. Western Equine Encephalitis submergence: lack of evidence for a decline in virus virulence. Virology 380, 170–2 (2008).

735. Fulhorst, C. F., Milazzo, M. L., Carroll, D. S., Charrel, R. N. & Bradley, R. D. Natural host relationships and genetic diversity of Whitewater Arroyo virus in southern Texas. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 67, 114–8 (2002).

736. Fulhorst, C. F. et al. Hantavirus and Arenavirus antibodies in persons with occupational rodent exposure, North America. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13, 532–538 (2007).

737. Fulhorst, C. F. et al. Geographic distribution and genetic diversity of Whitewater Arroyo virus in the southwestern United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 7, 403–407 (2001).

738. Charrel, R. N., de Lamballerie, X. & Fulhorst, C. F. The Whitewater Arroyo virus: natural evidence for genetic recombination among Tacaribe serocomplex viruses (family Arenaviridae). Virology 283, 161–6 (2001).

739. Milazzo, M. L. et al. Antibodies to Tacaribe serocomplex viruses (family Arenaviridae, genus Arenavirus) in cricetid rodents from New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. Vector borne zoonotic Dis. 10, 629–37 (2010).

740. Inizan, C. C. et al. Genetic evidence for a Tacaribe serocomplex virus, Mexico. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 16, 1007–1011 (2010).

741. Forrester, N. L., Kenney, J. L., Deardorff, E., Wang, E. & Weaver, S. C. Western Equine Encephalitis submergence: lack of evidence for a decline in virus virulence. Virology 380, 170–2 (2008).

742. Diaz, H. F. & Mccabe, G. J. A possible connection between the 1878 Yellow Fever epidemic in the southern United States and the 1877 – 78 El Niño episode. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 80, 21–28 (1999).

743. Monath, T. P. Reviews Yellow fever: an update. Lancet 1, 11–20 (2001).

744. Auguste, A. J. et al. Yellow fever virus maintenance in Trinidad and its dispersal throughout the Americas. J. Virol. 84, 9967–77 (2010).

745. J, B. et al. Enzootic transmission of Yellow fever virus in Peru. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9, 926–933 (2003).

746. Bryant, J. E., Holmes, E. C. & Barrett, A. D. T. Out of Africa: a molecular perspective on the introduction of Yellow fever virus into the Americas. PLoS Pathog. 3, e75 (2007).

747. Deng, I. M. et al. Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Sudan, 1976. Bull. World Health Organ. 56, 247–270 (1978).

748. Pourrut, X. et al. Large serological survey showing cocirculation of Ebola and Marburg viruses in Gabonese bat populations, and a high seroprevalence of both viruses in Rousettus aegyptiacus. BMC Infect. Dis. 9, 1–10 (2009).

749. Lahm, S. A., Kombila, M., Swanepoel, R. & Barnes, R. F. W. Morbidity and mortality of wild animals in relation to outbreaks of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Gabon, 1994-2003. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 101, 64–78 (2007).

750. Leroy, E. M. et al. A serological survey of Ebola virus infection in central African nonhuman primates. J. Infect. Dis. 190, 1895–9 (2004).

751. Groseth, A., Feldmann, H. & Strong, J. E. The ecology of Ebola virus. Trends Microbiol. 15, 408–16 (2007).

752. Walsh, P. D., Biek, R. & Real, L. a. Wave-like spread of Ebola Zaire. PLoS Biol. 3, e371 (2005).

753. Allela, L. et al. Ebola virus antibody prevalence in dogs and human risk. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11, 385–90 (2005).

754. Leroy, E. M. et al. Multiple Ebola virus transmission events and rapid decline of central African wildlife. Science 303, 387–390 (2004).

755. Hayes, E. B. Zika virus outside Africa. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 15, 1347–1350 (2009).

756. Kool, J. L. et al. Zika virus outbreak on Yap Island, Federated States of Micronesia. N. Engl. J. Med. 360, 2536–2543 (2009).

757. Lanciotti, R. S. et al. Genetic and serologic properties of Zika virus associated with an epidemic, Yap State, Micronesia, 2007. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14, 1232–1239 (2008).

758. Fagbami, a H. Zika virus infections in Nigeria: virological and seroepidemiological investigations in Oyo State. J. Hyg. (Lond). 83, 213–9 (1979).

759. Weissenböck, H., Hubálek, Z., Bakonyi, T. & Nowotny, N. Zoonotic mosquito-borne flaviviruses: worldwide presence of agents with proven pathogenicity and potential candidates of future emerging diseases. Vet. Microbiol. 140, 271–80 (2010).

760. Kilbourn, A. M. et al. Health evaluation of free-ranging and semi-captive Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) in Sabah, Malaysia. J. Wildl. Dis. 39, 73–83 (2003).

761. Faye, O. et al. One-step RT-PCR for detection of Zika virus. J. Clin. Virol. 43, 96–101 (2008).