67
PLUTONIUM
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Table 3-4. Genotoxicity of Plutonium In Vivo
Species (test system) End point
Results
Reference
Mammalian systems:
Human (peripheral
Chromosomal aberrations
+
Schofield 1980
blood lymphocytes)
Human (peripheral
Chromosomal aberrations
(+)
Brandom et al. 1990; Hande et al.
blood lymphocytes)
2003, 2005; IAEA 1979; Livingston et
al. 2006; Mitchell et al. 2004;
Okladnikova et al. 2005; Tawn et al.
1985; Whitehouse et al. 1998
Human (whole blood) Chromosomal aberrations
–
Hempelmann et al. 1973; Voelz et al.
1979
Monkey (peripheral
Chromosomal aberrations
+
Brooks et al. 1992; LaBauve et al.
blood lymphocytes)
1980
Mouse (testes)
Chromosomal aberrations
+
Beechey et al. 1975; Generoso et al.
1985; Pomerantseva et al. 1989
Mouse (testes)
Chromosomal aberrations
–
Brooks et al. 1979; Searle et al. 1976
Mouse (bone marrow) Chromosomal aberrations
+
Svoboda et al. 1987
Chinese hamster
Chromosomal aberrations
–
Brooks et al. 1979
(testes)
Chinese hamster
Chromosomal aberrations
+
IAEA 1976b, 1976e
(liver cells)
Chinese hamster
Chromosomal aberrations
+
DOE 1976
(blood cells)
Syrian hamster (lung Chromosomal aberrations
+
Stroud 1977
cells)
Mouse (pulmonary
Micronuclei
+
Talbot et al. 1986, 1989
alveolar
macrophages)
Mouse (male germ
Dominant lethal
+
IAEA 1976k; Lüning et al. 1976;
cells)
Pomerantseva et al. 1989
Mouse (male germ
Dominant lethal
–
Searle et al. 1976
cells)
Mouse (ovaries)
Dominant lethal
(+)
Searle et al. 1982
– = negative result; + = positive result; (+) = positive
or marginal result
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PLUTONIUM
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Table 3-5. Genotoxicity of Plutonium In Vitro
Result
With
Without
Species (test system)
End point
activation activation Reference
Mammalian cells:
Human (peripheral blood
Chromosomal
No data
+
Purrott et al. 1980
lymphocytes)
aberrations
Human (lymphoblastic cell
Chromosomal
No data
+
DOE 1980h
line)
aberrations
Mouse (10T1/2, 3T3 cells)
Chromosomal
No data
+
Nagasawa et al. 1990a
aberrations
Mouse (bone marrow)
Chromosomal
No data
+
Kadhim et al. 1992
aberrations
Chinese hamster (M3-1 cells) Chromosomal
No data
+
Welleweerd et al. 1984
aberrations
Chinese hamster (V79 cells) Chromosomal
No data
+
Griffin et al. 1994
aberrations
Chinese hamster (ovary K-1 Chromosomal
No data
+
Nagasawa et al. 1990b
cells)
aberrations
Human (peripheral blood
Sister chromatid
No data
+
Aghamohammadi et al.
lymphocytes)
exchanges
1988
Mouse (10T1/2, 3T3 cells)
Sister chromatid
No data
+
Nagasawa et al. 1990a
exchanges
Chinese hamster (ovary cells) Sister chromatid
No data
+
Nagasawa and Little
exchanges
1992; Nagasawa et al.
1990b
Human (peripheral blood
Micronuclei
No data
+
Bilbao et al. 1989
lymphocytes)
Human (embryonic skin
Gene
mutation
No data
+
Chen et al. 1984
fibroblasts)
Chinese hamster (ovary cell Gene mutation
No data
+
Barnhart and Cox 1979;
line)
DOE 1980h
Chinese hamster (V79-4 cells) Gene mutation
No data
+
Thacker et al. 1982
Chinese hamster (V79-4 cells) DNA double-strand No data
+
Jenner et al. 1993
breaks
Chinese hamster (V79-379A DNA double-strand No data
+
Fox and McNally 1990
lung fibroblasts)
breaks
Chinese hamster
DNA damage
No data
+
Prise et al. 1987
(V79-379A cells)
Mouse-rat (hybrid cell line)
Reduction in radio-
No data
+
Robertson and Raju 1980
resistance
Prokaryotic organisms:
Salmonella typhimurium
Gene mutation
No data
–
DOE 1980h
(TA100, TA98, TA1535,
TA1537, TA1538, TA2420,
TA2421)
C
= negative result; + = positive result
69
PLUTONIUM
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
median dose to the bone marrow), but not with the external radiation dose. Frequency of micronuclei did
not differ significantly among the three study groups.
Significantly increased frequencies of symmetrical and asymmetrical chromosomal aberrations were
reported among workers at the Sellafield (United Kingdom) plutonium facility with internalized
plutonium in excess of 20% of the maximum permissible body burden (Tawn et al. 1985). Frequencies of
symmetrical aberrations were significantly higher at retesting 10 years later, although no significant
external radiation exposure had occurred during the 10-year interim (Whitehouse et al. 1998). This
finding is consistent with the hypothesis that internally-deposited plutonium irradiates hemopoietic
precursor cells (Whitehouse et al. 1998).
Internal plutonium dose-related increased frequencies in chromosomal aberrations have also been
reported in peripheral blood lymphocytes of plutonium workers with estimated plutonium body burdens
as high as 15.5 kBq from exposure at the Mayak plutonium facilities in Russia (Hande et al. 2003, 2005;
Mitchell et al. 2004; Okladnikova et al. 2005). The increased frequencies of chromosomal aberrations in
the Mayak workers persisted many years following the cessation of exposure (Hande et al. 2003, 2005;
Mitchell et al. 2004).
Significantly increased frequencies of chromosomal aberrations were
observed among Rocky Flats
(Colorado) plutonium workers with internal plutonium burdens >740 Bq (Brandom et al. 1990; IAEA
1979). Conversely, among Manhattan Project plutonium workers followed for up to 32 years, no
apparent correlation was found between the frequency of chromosomal aberrations and plutonium body
burdens in the range of 0.185–15.4 kBq (Hempelmann et al. 1973; Voelz et al. 1979).
Open wounds represent a significant route through which plutonium workers might be exposed to
plutonium alpha particles. Chromosomal aberrations were observed in lymphocytes among eight
plutonium workers in the United Kingdom occupationally exposed to plutonium with the primary routes
of exposure through wounds, punctures, or abrasions (estimated plutonium body burdens from 0.78 to
1.5 kBq).
In exposed individuals, the number of dicentric aberrations averaged 5 per 500 cells, while the
natural population background frequency of this aberration is 1 per 4,000 cells (Schofield 1980; Schofield
et al. 1974).
Results of
in vivo genotoxicity studies in laboratory animals consistently reveal alpha radiation-induced
dose-related increases in the frequency of chromosomal aberrations following internalization of