dubious distinction of being the Western Hemisphere’s
poorest nation. The United States turned a blind eye to
much of the Duvaliers’ tactics because they were staunchly
anticommunist and kept the population in check. Baby
Doc Duvalier hung on to power until February 1986 when,
after three months of increasingly violent protests against
the government’s policies, he fled the country for France.
Between 1986 and 1990 Haiti was ruled by a series
of provisional governments while prodemocracy reformers
sought to overhaul the Haitian political system. After a
new constitution was ratified in 1987, there was a brief
glimmer of hope that democracy and stability might finally
come to the embattled nation. A national election was held
in December 1990 that was internationally supervised and
believed to be free and fair. The winner of the presidential
race was a young, charismatic Roman Catholic priest,
Jean-Bertrand Aristide. Aristide, considered a progressive
reformer, sought to initiate badly needed land reform and
to jump-start the moribund Haitian economy. Yet violence
and intimidation persisted in Haiti, much of it directed by
the Tontons Macoutes and opponents of Aristide. Less
than seven months into his presidency, on 30 September
1991 Aristide was overthrown in a violent coup led by Dr.
Roger Lafontant and supported by the military and Hait-
ian elites who feared Aristide’s reform agenda.
In September 1994 Aristide was returned to power
with American support, and a U.S.-led international peace-
keeping force (MLF) was dispatched to Haiti to ensure
the peaceful transfer of power. Although much hope was
placed in Aristide’s leadership, it soon became apparent
that his administration was tolerant if not supportive of corruption and polit-
ical intimidation. Nor was he able to bring about any substantive improve-
ment to the economy. Aristide attempted to run for the presidency again in
the December 1995 elections but was constitutionally forbidden. Instead,
René Preval was elected, although Aristide and his supporters attempted to
destabilize his government by claiming that the election results were invalid.
This led to deep divisions between the executive and legislative branches
and eventually to political gridlock. In December 2000 Aristide ran for pres-
ident again in yet another disputed election and in February 2001 was inau-
gurated amid much controversy. Three years later, rebellion broke out among
Aristide’s opponents as tales of widespread government corruption began to
circulate. In the meantime, the Aristide government had not ameliorated the
abysmal economic situation. Finally, under pressure from the United States
and other nations, Aristide left office on 29 February 2004, another sad story
in the troubled history of Haiti. Aristide was succeeded by Boniface Alexan-
dre, chief of the supreme court.
Paul G. Pierpaoli Jr.
Haiti
889
Haitian dictator President François Duvalier shown in
battle dress in his office during operations to put down
a rebellion against his regime, 28 July 1958. (Bettmann/
Corbis)
See also
Aristide, Jean-Bertrand; Duvalier, François
References
Fatton, Robert. Haiti’s Predatory Republic: The Unending Transition to Democracy. Boul-
der, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002.
McKissick, Patricia C. History of Haiti. Maryknoll, NY: Henry Holt, 1998.
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. Haiti, State against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duva-
lierism. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990.
Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, West Germany) academic and politician.
Born in Mainz on 17 November 1901, Walter Hallstein studied law in Bonn,
Munich, and Berlin, obtaining a doctorate in international law in 1925. Four
years later he secured the right to lecture at the university level and taught busi-
ness law at the University of Rostock (1930–1941) and then civil law at the Uni-
versity of Frankfurt-am-Main (1941–1945). Taken prisoner by the Americans
in 1945, he founded a camp university before being released. He returned to
Frankfurt-am-Main in February 1946 to help reestablish the law faculty there.
In June 1950, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer chose Hallstein to lead the
West German delegation to discuss the Schumann Plan for European inte-
gration in Paris. Along with Jean Monnet, Hallstein was one of the key
founders of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). When this
task was completed in August, Hallstein joined the Chancellor’s Office as a
state secretary for foreign affairs. Hallstein moved to the foreign office in
1951, and in 1955 he rose to prominence as the creator of the so-called Hall-
stein Doctrine, which would serve as a foundation for West German foreign
policy for the next fifteen years. The Hallstein Doctrine stated that with the
exception of the Soviet Union, West Germany would not establish diplo-
matic relations with any state that recognized the German Democratic Repub-
lic (GDR, East Germany).
Although perhaps not as well known for this as for his doctrine, Hallstein
went on to win recognition for his work in the European Economic Commu-
nity (EEC). He became president of the EEC Commission (EC) in 1958 and
unveiled the Hallstein Plan for the EC the following year. His vision of a
united Europe clashed with the emerging Gaullist notion of a “Europe of
Nations.” Hallstein resigned his post in 1967. He returned briefly to German
politics as a representative in the Bundestag from 1969 to 1972. Hallstein died
in Stuttgart on 29 March 1982.
Timothy Dowling
See also
Adenauer, Konrad; De Gaulle, Charles; European Coal and Steel Community; Euro-
pean Economic Community; Germany, Federal Republic of; Hallstein Doctrine;
Monnet, Jean; Schuman, Robert
890
Hallstein, Walter
Hallstein, Walter
(1901–1982)