Verb as a part of speech in modern english. The grammatical categories of the verb

Verb as a Part of Speech
Words like to read, to live, to go, to jump are called verbs because of their following features.

1. 
   they express the meanings of action and state;
   
2. 
   they have the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, order and posteriority most of which have their own grammatical means;
   
3. 
   the function of verbs entirely depends on their forms: if they in finite form they fulfill only one function – predicate. But if they are in non-finite form then they can fulfill any function in the sentence but predicate; they may be part of the predicate;
   
4. 
   verbs can combine actually with all the parts of speech, though they do not combine with articles, with some pronouns. It is important to note that the combinability of verbs mostly depends on the syntactical function of verbs in speech;
   
5. 
   verbs have their own stem-building elements. They are:
   

postfixes: -fy (simplify, magnify, identify…)
-ize (realize, fertilize, standardize…)
-ate (activate, captivate…)
prefixes: re- (rewrite, restart, replant…)
mis- (misuse, misunderstand, misstate…)
un- (uncover, uncouple, uncrown…)
de- (depose, depress, derange…) and so on.
The Types of Verbs
The classification of verbs can be undertaken from the following points of view:
1)meaning
2)form-formation;
3)function.
I. There are three basic forms of the verb in English: infinitive, past indefi nite and PII.
These forms are kept in mind in classifying verbs.
II. Therearefourtypesofform-formation:
1. affixation:reads, asked, going ...
2. variation ofsounds: run –ran, may –might, bring –brought...
3. suppletiveways: be–is–am–are–was;go –went...
4. analyticalmeans: shall come, have asked, is helped ...
There are productive and non-productive ways of word-formation in present-day English verbs.
Affixation is productive, while variation of sounds and suppletion are non-productive.
Notional and Functional Verbs
From the point of view of their meaning verbs fall under two groups: notional and functional.
Notional verbs have full lexical meaning of their own. The majority of verbs fall under this group.
Function verbs differ from notional ones of lacking lexical meaning of their own. They cannot be used independently in the sentence; they are used to furnish certain parts of sentence (very often they are used with predicates).
Function verbs are divided into three: link verbs, modal verbs, auxiliary verbs.
Link verbs are verbs which having combined with nouns, adjectives, prepositional phrases and so on add to the whole combination the meaning of process.
In such cases they are used as finite forms of the verb they are part of compound nominal predicates and express voice, tense and other categories.
Modal verbs are small group of verbs which usually express the modal meaning, the speaker’s attitude to the action, expressed by the notional verb in the sentence. They lack some grammatical fors like infinitive form, grammatical categories and so on. Thus, they do not have all the categories of verbs. They may express mood and tense since they function as parts of predicates. They lack the non-finite forms.
Besides in present-day English there is another group of verbs which are called auxiliaries. They are used to form analytical forms of verbs. Verbs: to be, to do, to have and so on may be included to this group.
Regular and Irregular Verbs
From the point of view of the formation of the Past Tense verbs are classified into two groups:
1) Regular verbs which form their basic forms by means of productive suffixes-(e)d. The majority of verbs refer to this class.
2)Irregular verbs form their basic forms by such non-productive means as:
a) variation of sounds in the root:
should -would –initial consonant change
begin -began -begun –vowel change of the root
catch -caught-caught-root-vowel and final consonant change
spend -spent-spent- final consonant change;
b)suppletion:
be–was/were
go –went
c) unchanged forms:
cast-cast-cast
put-put–put
By suppletion we understand the forms of words derived from different roots.
A. Smirnitsky gives the following conditions to recognize suppletive fors of words;
1. when the meaning of words are identical in their lexical meaning.
2. when they mutually complement one another, having no parallel opposemes.
3. when other words of the same class build up a given opposemes without suppletivity, i.e. from one root. Thus, we recognize the words be - am, bad - worse as suppletive because they express the same grammatical meanings as the forms of words: light – lighter, big – bigger, work – worked.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Verbs can also be classified from the point of view of their ability of taking objects. In accord with this we distinguish two types of verbs: transitive and intransitive. The former type of verbs are divided into two:
a) verbs which are combined with direct object: to have a book to find the address
b) verbs which take prepositional objects: to wait for, to look at, talk about, depend on…
To the latter type the following verbs are referred:
a) verbs expressing state: be, exist, live, sleep, die…
b) verbs of motion: go, come, run, arrive, travel…
c) verbs expressing the position in space: lie, sit, stand ...
As has been told above in actual research work or in describing linguistic phenomena we do not always find hard-and-fast lines separating one phenomenon from the other. In many cases we come across an intermediate stratum. We find such stratum between transitive and intransitive verbs which is called causative verbs, verbs
intransitivein theirorigin, butsometimesused astransitive: to fly akite, to sailaship, to nod approval ... The same is found in the construction "cognate object": to live along life, to die the death of a hero ...
The Grammatical Categories of Verbs
In this question we do not find a generally accepted view-point. B.A. Ilyish (15) identifies six grammatical categoriesin present-day English verb: tense, aspect, mood, voice, personand number. L. Barkhudarov, D. Steling distinguish only the following grammatical categories: voice, order, aspect, and mood. Further they note, that the finite forms of the verb have special means expressing person, number and tense.
B. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya (4): out of the eight grammatical categories of the verb, some are found not only in the finites, but in the verbids as well. Two of them-voice (ask - be asked), order (ask - have asked) are found in all the verbids, and the third aspect (ask - to be asking) – only in the infinitive. They distinguish the following grammatical categories: voice, order, aspect, mood, posteriority, person, number.
The Category of Voice
By the category of voice we mean different grammatical ways of expressing the relation between a transitive verb and its subject and object. The majority of authors of English theoretical grammars seem to recognize only two voices in English: the active and the passive. H. Sweet, O. Curme recognize two voices. There are such terms, as inverted object, inverted subjectand retained objectin Sweet'sgrammar.
The Inverted object is the subject of the passive construction. The Inverted subject is the object of the passive constructions. The rat was killed by the dog. O. Jespersen call sit"converted subject". But in the active construction like: “The examinerasked me three ques tions” eithe rof the object words may be the subject of the passive sentence.
I was asked 3 questions by the examiner.
Three questions were asked by the examiner.
Words meand three questions are called retained objects. H.Poutsma besides the two voices mentioned above finds one more voice – reflexive. He writes: "It has been observed that the meaning of the Greek medium is normally expressed in English by means of reflexive or, less frequently, by reciprocal pronouns". It is because of this H. Poutsma distinguishes in Modern English the third voice. He transfers the system of the Greek grammar into the system of English. He gives the following examples:
He got to bed, covered himself up warm and fell asleep. H. Whitehall
This grammarian the traditional terms indirect and direct objects replaced by inner and outer complements (words of position 3 and 4) consequently. The passive voice from his point of view is the motion of the words of position 3 and 4 to position one. The verb is transformed into a word-group introduced by parts of be, become, get and the original subject is hooked into the end of the sentence by means of the preposition by.
Different treatment of the problem is found in theoretical courses written by Russian grammarians The most of them recognize the existence of the category of voice in present-day English. To this group of scientists we refer A.I. Smirnitsky, L. Barkhudarov, L. Steling, Khaimovich and Rogovskaya's according to their opinion there are two active and passive voices. But some others maintain that there are three voices in English. Besides the two mentioned they consider the reflexive voice which is expressed by the help of semantically weakened selfpronouns as in the sentence:
He cut himself while shaving.
B.A. Ilyish besides the three voices mentioned distinguishes two more: the reciprocal voice expressed with the help of each-other, one another and the neuter (“middle”) voice in such sentences as: The door opened. The college was filling up.
The conception reminds us Poutsma's view. He writes: "A passive meaning may also not seldom be observed in verbs that have thrown off the reflexive pronoun and have, consequently, become intransitive. Thus, we find it more or less distinctly in the verbs used in: Her eyes filled with tears ..." We cannot but agree with arguments against these theories expressed by Khaimovich and Rogovskaya: "These theories do not carry much conviction, because: 1) in cases like he washed himself it is not the verb that is reflexive but that pronoun himself used as a direct object; 2) washed and himself are words belonging to different lexemes. They have different lexical and grammatical meanings;
3) if we regard washed himself as an analytical word, it is necessary to admit that the verb has the categories of gender, person, non-person (washed himself-washed itself), that the categories of number and person are expressed twice in the word-group washed himself; 4) similar objection can be raised against regarding washed each-other, washed one another as analytical forms of the reciprocal voice. The difference between "each other" and "one another"
would become a grammatical category of the verb; 5) A number of verbs express the reflexive meanings without the corresponding pronouns: He always washes in cold water. Kiss and be friends. The grammatical categories of voice is formed by the opposition of covert and overt morphemes. The active voice is formed by a zero marker: while the passive voice is formed by (be-ed). So the active voice is the unmarked one and the passive-marked. To ask - to be asked
The morpheme of the marked form we may cal la discontinuous morpheme.
From the point of view of some grammarians O. Jespersen, O. Curme G. orontsova verbs get / become + Participle II are passive constructions. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya seem to be right when they say that in such constructions get / become always retain lexical meanings.
Different opinions are observed as to the P II. G. V. Vorontsova, L. Barkhudarov and D. Steling the combination be + PII in all cases treat as a passive voice if PII is not adjectivized (if particles very, too and adverbs of degree more (most) do not precede PII on the ground that PII first and foremost, a verb, the idea of state not being an evident to this structure but resulting from the lexical meaning of the verb and the context it occurs in). Khaimovich and Rogovskaya arguing against this conception write that in such cases as: His duty is fulfilled we deal with a link verb +PII since: 1) it does not convey the idea of action, but that of state, the result of an action: 2) The sentence correspond rather He has fulfilled his duty, as the perfective meaning of Participle II is particularly prominent.
The Grammatical Category of Mood The problem of the category of mood i.e., the distinction, between the real and unreal expressed by the corresponding forms of the verb is one of the most controversial problems of English theoretical grammar. The main theoretical difficulty is due: 1) to the coexistence in Modern English of both synthetical and analytical forms of the verb with the same grammatical meaning of unreality and
2) to the fact that there are verbal forms homonymous with the Past Indefinite and Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood which are employed to express unreality. Another difficulty consists in distinguishing the analytical forms of the subjunctive with the auxiliaries should would, may (might) which are devoid of any lexical meaning.
Opinions differ in the establishment of the number of moods in English.
Below we'll consider views of some grammarians on the problem.
H. Sweet (42): "By the moods of a verb we understand grammatical forms expressing different relations between subject and predicate".1. There are two moods in English which oppose to each other: Thought-form, fact mood
The thought-form is divided into 3 moods: 1. conditional mood-the combination of should and would with the infinitive, when used inthe principle clause of conditional sentences.
2. permissive mood – the combination of may/might with the infinitive. 3. compulsive mood-the combination of the finite form of the verb "to be" with the supine.
If it were to rain I do not know what shall we do.
G.O. Curme: “Moods are the changes in the form of the verb to show the various ways in which the action or state is thought of by the speaker”.
He distinguishes three moods:
1. Indicative Mood. This form represents something as a fact, or as in close relation with reality, or in interrogative form inquires after a fact.
2. Subjunctive Mood. There are two entirely different kinds of subjunctive forms: the old simple subjunctive and newer forms consisting of a modal auxiliary and a dependent infinitive of the verb to be used.
3. The function of the Subjunctive is to represent something not as an actual reality, but as formed in the mind of the speaker as a desire, wish, volition, plan, conception, thought, sometimes with more or less hope of realization. The present subjunctive is associated with the idea of hopeless, likelihood, while the past subjunctive indicates doubt, unlikelihood, unreality;
I desire that he go at once.
I fear he may come too late.
Iwould have bought it if I had had money.
Mood is the grammatical category of the verb reflecting the relation of the action expressed by the verb to reality from the speaker’s point of view. The three moods: indicative, imperative and subjunctive are found in almost all the grammars of Russian grammarians. We say «almost» because Barkhudarov and Steling consider only the first and third.
-in the indicative mood the speaker presents the action as taking place in reality;
-in the imperative mood the speaker urges the listener to perform some action.
-in subjunctive mood the speaker presents the action as imaginary.
As to the number of mood we do not find common opinion: Smirnitsky and some others speak of six moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive I, subjunctive II, conditional and suppositional). B. Ilyish and Ivanova find three (Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive) B.A. Ilyish divides the latter into two forms-the conditional and the subjunctive and so on. The indicative mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphologically it is the most developed category of the verb.
According to Khaimovich and Rogovskaya (22) the grammarians are unanimous about themeaning of the Subjunctive Mood. While in all other respects opinions differ. It seems interesting to compare the opinions of Whitehall (43) (above) and Khaimovich on the problem: “The system of the subjunctive mood in Modern English has been and still is in a state of development. There are many elements in it which are rapidly falling into disuse and there are new elements coming into use”.
O. Jespersen argues against Sweet's definition of Mood; he writes that it would be more correct to say that mood expresses certain attitudes of the mind of the speaker towards the contents of the sentence.
P. Whitehall:“Although the subjunctive is gradually dying out of the language, English isrich in devices for expressing one’s psychological moods toward happenings that are imaginary”.
Other Categories of Verbs
Besides the already discussed categories of the verb, there are some other categories like aspect, order, posteriority, tense and others. These categories are very often mixed up: most authors consider them within the tense category. To illustrate this we'll view the conception of Henry Sweet. To H. Sweet there are three tenses in English. "Tense is primarily the grammatical expression of distinctions of time". Every occurrence, considered from the point of view of time, must be either past (I was here yesterday), present (he is here today), or future (he will be here tomorrow).
Simple and Compound Tenses: The present, preterite and future are simple tenses. All the perfect tenses are referred by him to compound tense. These tenses combine present, past and future respectively with a time anterior to each of these periods: present perfect = preterite + preterite; plu perfect(pastp.)=pre-preterite+preterite; future perfect = pre-future+future.
Primary and secondary Tenses: He writes: “When we speak of an occurrence as past, we must have some point of time from which to measure it.
When we measure the time of an occurrence from the time when we are speaking, that is, from the present, the tense which expresses the time of the occurrence is called a primary tense. The present, preterite, future and perfect (the present perfect) are primary tenses.
A secondary tense on the other hand, is measured not from the time when we are speaking, but from some past or future time of which we are speaking and consequently a sentence containing secondary tense makes us expect another sentence containing a verb in a primary tense to show the time from which that of the secondary tenseisto bemeasured. The pluperfect and future perfect are both secondary tenses.
He will have informed his friends by the time they (the quests) arrived.
He had informed his friends when the quests arrived.
Complete and Incomplete Tenses. The explanation of this classification of tenses by H. Sweet is vague and confused becausehemixesup thelexicaland grammaticalmeans, compare:
I have lived my life.
I have lived here a good many years.
The first is complete and second is incomplete. As one can see there's no difference in the form of verbs.
He makes his division because of different distribution of the tense forms. But one point is clear in his conception. He considers continuous tense to be also incomplete as for instance:
The clock is striking twelve while.
The clock has struck twelve. (complete)
ContinuousTenses are opposed to Point-Tenses:
I've been writing letters all day.
We set out for Germany.
Though even here we observe some confusion. Such examples are also considered to be continuous or recurrent:
He goes to Germany twice a year.
Definite and Indefinite Tenses: the shorter a tense is, the more definite it generally is in duration. Long times(continuous and recurrent)-are generally more indefinite:
I write my letters in the evenings.
I am writing a letter.
O. Jeperson’s view of the grammatical tenses in English isillustrated in the table below:
B
A_________________O_________________C
A B Future Before past Past After past Present Before future Future After future
After-past time: I know of no language which possesses a simple tense for this notion. A usual meaning “obligation”in English most often is expressed by “was to”:
Next year she gave birth to a son who was to cause her great anxiety.
After future. This has a chiefly theoretical interest, and I doubt very much whether forms like; I shall be going to rewrite (which implies nearness in time to the chief future time is of very frequent occurrence).
The Continuous tenses he calls expanded ones: is writing, will be asking, will have been asking ... or composite tense-forms. The categories of tense, aspect and order characterize an action from different points of view. The tense of a verb shows the time of the action; the aspect of a verb deals with the development of the
action, while order denotes the order of the actions.
When discussing grammatical categories we accepted that a grammatical category is a grammatical meaning which has a certain grammatical means to be expressed.
The analyses of the following example will help us to make certain conclusions: When you come he will have been writing his composition. The predicates of the sentence are in the indicative mood. And, as has been stated, it is in this mood all the grammatical categories of the verb are expressed. The tense is future and it is expressed by the auxiliary word/verb will. The order is prior and it is expressed by the auxiliary verb have + -en or -ed. The aspect is continuous and it is expressed by the auxiliary verb be + ing.
Since all these categories have their own means we may call them grammatical ones. And as any category must have certain opposition (while defining the grammatical categories we defined it as “at least having two individual forms”).
The category of tense is orientated with regard to the present tense. The tense category is the system of three-member opposition. So the present tense may be called as the point of measurement or orientation point. The category of order is a system of two-member opposition:prior and non-prior. Compare:
I work –I have worked.
So the prior order marker have + ed is opposite to the zero of non-prior. As in English there are three tenses. This grammatical category can be expressed in all of them. Present: I work – I have worked. Past: I worked – I had worked. Future:Ishallwork –Ishall have worked. The category of aspect is a system of two-member opposition: Continuous–Non-continuous: I work –I am working. To be- ing is the morpheme of the continuous meaning. This category is found in all the three tenses.
Present:I work –I am working
Past:I worked –Iwas working.
Future:I'll work –I'll be working.
The means of expression of these categories are arranged in a certain sequence. In the active voice they are arranged in the following way:
Tense is expressed in the first component of the predicate: order – in first or second (second if it is in the future tense), aspect – in the second or third components. The order means always precede the aspect means if both are found in the predicate. If the predicate is in the passive voice the tense is again expressed by the first component of it while the means of the passive voice follows the means of the aspect and order categories. Note: In the future tense the passive meaning and the aspect (continuous) is incompatible.
The Category of Posteriority
This category is distinguished by B. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya. As they put it this category is the system of two member opposition: shall come-should come. will come-would come their meaning is: absolute and relative posteriority. When posteriority is expressed in relation to the moment of speech it is called absolute. If posteriority is with regard to some other moment then it is relative. If we accept this category, according to the definition of the grammatical category it is expressed by auxiliary verbs shall and will for absolute posteriority and should and would for relative. Shall and will cannot denote at the same time, two meanings: those of tense and posteriority, if in this case - there are two meanings then we must admit that the auxiliaries will- would, shall-should consist of two morphemes each. Applying the usual procedure we cut the words into w-ill and w-ould; sh-all and sh-ould; w-w and sh-sh are combined into morphemes of tense, and ill-all as allmorphs of the morpheme of absolute posteriority while ould-ould - as morpheme of relative
posteriority.
The CategoriesofNumber andPerson
The category of person is the system of two member opposition. It is avail able only in the Present Tense in singular number. B. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya (22) state that “the third person with a positive morpheme being opposed to the first person with a zero morpheme”. In the future tense sh- of the first person is opposed to w- of the second and third persons.
A similar treatment of the problem is observed in works of L.S. Barkhudarov (2), (4), who opposes third person to the common person (1st, 2nd persons) because “almost all the verbs in the 1st and 2nd persons have a zero marker”. So far as to the category of number is concerned many grammarians consider that it is in its purity represented only in the verb “to be”, for other verbs the opposition of the 3rdperson singular, to 3rd person plural accepted (in thepresent-tense).