STUDIA HUMANIORA TARTUENSIA vol. 7.A.4 (2006)
ISSN 1406-6203 · http://www.ut.ee/klassik/sht/
P
OMPEY
’
S POLITICS AND THE PRESENTATION OF HIS THEATRE
-
TEMPLE COMPLEX
,
61–52
BCE
Mark A. Temelini
Abstract
After celebrating his third triumph Pompey the Great decided to build a splendid theatre-temple com-
plex during the political and social anxieties of the 50s BCE. This monument was an architectural under-
taking hitherto never attempted at Rome. The building was designed with Rome’s first permanent stone
theatre, a temple of Venus Victrix and a quadriporticus. He also added a senate building in an attempt to
soften senatorial antagonism. The importance of religion in the political life of Pompey demonstrates
how the structure was a victory monument honouring his military achievements and represented his
desire for popularity and everlasting fame. The purpose of this study is to examine the political and
religious circumstances and considerations influencing Pompey’s decision to present this structure to the
Roman people.
In 61 BCE
1
Pompey celebrated one of the most extravagant triumphs Rome had ever
witnessed. This third triumph mainly honoured his victorious achievements in Asia
Minor,
2
but also reminded the Roman spectators of his previous military campaigns
in North Africa, Spain, and against the pirates in the Mediterranean Sea.
3
On the
social level the triumph and the games associated with it comprised a public event
which catered to the people’s desire for entertainment. Politically, the lavish spectacle
increased Pompey’s popularity by symbolizing the power and wealth which he had
gained for himself and Rome. This supreme greatness and dignity was displayed in
an impressive exhibition of propaganda.
4
Days after the event the Roman people did
1
All dates BCE unless otherwise noted.
2
For a commentary on Pompey’s Eastern triumph, see: Diod. Sic. 40.4; Val. Max. 8.15.8; Plin. HN
7.26.97–99, 37.5.11–7.18, 41; App. Mith. 116–117. The Fasti Capitolini (Degrassi 1954: 108), record the
events of the triumph on September 29, 61 in this way: [Cn. Pompeius Cn. f. Sex. n. Magnus III] pro co(n)s(ule)
a. DCXCII [
ex Asia, Ponto, Armenia, Paphla]
gonia, Cappadoc(
ia)
, [
Cilicia, Syria, Scytheis, Iudaeis, Alb]
ania,
pirateis, [
per biduum pridie k. O]
cto(
bres).
3
„But what enhanced his glory the most and had never yet happened to any of the Romans,” wrote
Plutarch (
Pomp. 45.5), „was that he celebrated his third triumph over the third continent. Even though
there were others before him who had celebrated three triumphs; this man celebrated his first over Libya,
his second over Europe, and his last one over Asia and he seemed in some way to have conquered the
whole world with his three triumphs.” In the same glorious tone Velleius Paterculus (2.40.4) wrote: „as
many divisions there are of the world, he erected just as many monuments of his victory.” All
translations of the ancient texts are my own.
4
As the triumphal procession wound its way through the Campus Martius toward the Capitoline a
praefatio led the parade with the following introduction (Plin.
HN 7.26.98):
Cum oram maritimam
praedonibus liberasset et imperium maris populo Romano restituisset ex Asia, Ponto, Armenia, Paphlagonia,
Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, Schythis, Iudaeis, Albanis, Hiberia, Insula Creta, Basternis, et super haec de rege Mithri-
date atque Tigrane triumphavit. Inscribed placards and banners were carried next, listing all the captured
nations, strongholds, cities, and ships, along with the numerous cities that were founded. Other inscrip-
tions and heralds announced the millions of sesterces added to the public treasury, and the amount of
money his soldiers were entitled to receive. Hundreds of captives marched alongside the wagonloads of
rich plunder. Pirates, royal families, Scythian women, and hostages were led in defeat. Many lavish
2
not easily forget the powerful image Pompey staged for himself. They regarded him
as a world conqueror and formidable leader.
5
In spite of all this triumph Pompey also returned to Rome under unfavourable
conditions. The majority of the senate did not respect the great general. He came from
a recent noble family of late distinction, he did not rise through the ranks of the cursus
honorum in the venerable Roman tradition, and he was not familiar with the protocol
of the Roman senate.
6
Cicero provides harsh judgements about Pompey (Att. 1.13.4,
1.18.6) and comments on his general unpopularity in the senate (
Att. 1.14). Many
senators thought that he was unworthy of his powerful position and by unanimously
denying him several contracts and official positions indicated that they did not want
Pompey involved in Rome’s affairs.
7
Pompey was politically humiliated by the very
republican establishment he faithfully served and protected during his military cam-
paigns.
All the senatorial antagonism directed toward Pompey essentially forced him
into the secret coalition with Caesar and Crassus in the summer of 60 (Cass. Dio
37.57.1–58.4). Pompey probably gained more confidence as events turned slowly to-
wards his favour with the help of his triumviral colleagues.
In 59, Caesar used his consular powers to persuade the Tribal Assembly to
ratify Pompey’s bills regarding his concessions in the east and land distribution to his
veterans. Pompey successfully appealed to the senate to grant Caesar a five-year
military command in Gaul, and in return Caesar had appointed Pompey as a land
trophies were carried in triumph to represent every military victory, no matter how small the battle.
Precious gems and minerals, pearl crowns, gold vessels, innumerable statues, and myrrh-coloured pot-
tery (which Romans had never seen before) were displayed in triumphant glory. One huge and lavish
tropaeum was even decorated in such a way as to present an image of the inhabited world. In addition, an
extravagant portrait rendered in pearls of Pompey himself was displayed for the public. Behind all this
wealth and victory came Pompey the Great wearing a golden wreath and full dress of a triumphator
riding in a four horse chariot. We can imagine the awestruck crowds applauding in disbelief such a
triumphal procession. On the social level the triumph and the ludi associated with it comprised a public
event which catered to the people’s desire for entertainment. The Romans loved a good show. This was
probably the greatest show since Scipio celebrated a magnificent triumph over the destruction of
Carthage. Pliny (HN 37.6.14) criticized it as „austerity defeated and more truthfully extravagance [cele-
brated] in triumph.” Cassius Dio (37.21) called the triumph „τὰ µείζω ἐπινίκια.” In the words of
Paterculus (2.40.2) „[Pompey] surpassed the fortune of his fellow man.”
5
Manilius (Astron. 1.793) offered these words of grateful homage: „Pompeius orbis domitor per tresque
triumphos ante deum princeps.”
6
Varro had to write a manual on senatorial procedure for Pompey (Aul. Gell. NA 14.17.2).
7
In January 62, the Senate refused the proposal that Pompey should deal with the threat of Catiline’s
army (Cic. Sull. 31, Ad Brut. 1.17.1; Sall. Cat. 17.43; Suet. Iul. 16; Plut. Cic. 23, Cat. Min. 26; Cass. Dio 37.43.1)
and refused to grant him a prestigious public works project (Cic. Fam. 5.7); there was senatorial opposi-
tion regarding the honour of triumphal garments and a supplicatio awarded to Pompey (Cic. Prov. cons.
11.26–27; Vell. Pat. 2.40.5; Cass. Dio 37.21.4.); Q. Caecilius Metellus Creticus was awarded a triumph by
the Senate in 62 for a campaign against the pirates. This credit belonged to Pompey (Vell. Pat. 2.34.2,
2.40.5; Cass. Dio 36.17a.); Pompey’s request for a deferment of the consular elections, held in July 62, was
refused by the Senate, under the instigation of Cato. This request would have allowed Pompey to sup-
port, in person, the candidature of Piso (Plut. Cat. Min. 30.1–2). Pompey found it difficult to impress the
Senate during his disapproval of Clodius’ prosecution. Senators distrusted him so much that he with-
drew in humiliation and appealed to Cicero’s oratorical abilities in order to gain favourable attention
(Cic. Att. 1.18); in 60, the senate defeated the ratification of Pompey’s concessions in the East (App. B. Civ.
2.9), and a bill concerning the distribution of land to veterans who served in the Eastern campaigns (Cic.
Att. 1.18.6, 1.19.4; Plut.
Cat.
Min. 30.2–3; Cass. Dio 37.49.2, 37.50.1–4.).