Linked to global trends: Linked to global trends: - Calls for self-determination
- Founding of UN
- American opposition to colonialism
- International labor movement
- Successful independence movements in Asia
Internal factors: Internal factors: - Injustices of colonial rule
- White racism
- African nationalism
- New leaders with Western-style educations
- Yearning for freedom
Each country’s conditions determined speed and ease of independence
Problems faced: - Maintaining national unity, stability, prosperity
- Pandemics and natural disasters
- Continual interference by foreign powers
Results of independence mixed - Millions died from famine, civil wars, and political terror
- Millions became refugees
Reasons for guarded hope: - Freeing of the last “colony,” South Africa
- Generosity towards former colonizers and occupiers
- Spirit of reconciliation in areas of ethnic conflict
- Winding down of civil wars
- Better leadership’ movements towards democracy
- Return to prosperity in some nations
1950-1965, rapid decolonization done peacefully 1950-1965, rapid decolonization done peacefully - 35 states from former European colonies emerged
Since then, independence obtained through armed action - Portuguese colonies in 1975
- Rhodesia in 1980
- Eritrea in 1993
- South Africa in 1994
Signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 Signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 - Britain/US pledged to principle of self-determination
UN: self-determination; end to colonialism Nationalist movements in Asia India’s independence in 1947 China’s reassertion of control Forced decolonization of France in Syria, Lebanon and Indochina
International labor movement organized African protests for fair treatment and wages International labor movement organized African protests for fair treatment and wages African militancy and belief that colonialism could be defeated Pan-African movement with ideas: “blackness” and Negritude; sense of racial unity and strength
New leaders: union leaders, soldiers, or university students returning home from America and Europe New leaders: union leaders, soldiers, or university students returning home from America and Europe Vision of a better Africa - “Africa for Africans” More politically active than predecessors Skillful at organizing and channeling grievance Phenomenon of mass nationalism and national political parties
Leaders: Leaders: - Leopold Senghor, Senegal
- Nnamdi Azikiwe, Nigeria
- Kwame Nkrumah, Gold Coast
- Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya Julius Nyerere, Tanganyika
- Kenneth Kaunda, Northern Rhodesia
Kwame Nkrumah, Gold Coast/Ghana, 1957, first independent nation - Kwame Nkrumah, Gold Coast/Ghana, 1957, first independent nation
- 1958, Charles de Gaulle, allowed vote for self-rule in French West and French Equatorial Africa
- 1960 was a “miraculous year” for Africa:
- more than half of the continent independent
- more followed within the next four years
White settler colonies, Algeria, Kenya, (Southern) Rhodesia, Mozambique, Angola, Southwest Africa, and South Africa White settler colonies, Algeria, Kenya, (Southern) Rhodesia, Mozambique, Angola, Southwest Africa, and South Africa Significant minority of Europeans who immigrated for a better life: - Had large houses, big farms
- Cheap African labor – servants, laborers
- Special privileges with colonial governments
Kenya: Kenya: - Rebel group, “Land and Freedom Army or “Mau Mau”
- Attacked African collaborators and white farmers
- Retaliation: “Mau Mau” put into camps and brutalized
- British public outraged by brutality; sea change
- Kenya granted independent in 1963
- First president Jomo Kenyatta
Won freedom after years of conflict: Won freedom after years of conflict: - Rhodesia and South Africa
- Algeria, Angola, Mozambique, Southwest Africa
- South Africa, at last in 1994, Afrikaner-supported government of F.W. de Klerk allowed African majority right to vote
- Nelson Mandela was first president.
Return to African names - Mali, Ghana, and Zaire, etc. New states not inclined to wipe out European presence Colonial borders continued Pro-democracy wave disappeared quickly – dictators, single parties took over
Why? - No tradition of Western-style political institutions and Parliamentary customs
- Strong tradition of personal leadership, loyalty to lineage/kin group
Post-independence leaders felt multi-party systems were alien and unworkable in Africa
Puppet governments – Ethiopia, Somalia, Angola, and Mozambique Puppet governments – Ethiopia, Somalia, Angola, and Mozambique Breakdown of democracy often ended in military dictatorships - First, Ghana, then from Nigeria to Somalia and from Algeria to Angola
Some generals wanted power and riches - Jean-Bedel Bokassa, Central African Republic
- Idi Amin, Uganda
- Joseph (Ssese Seko) Mobutu, Zaire (now Democratic Republic of Congo)
- Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe
Some vicious repressors been forced out - Some vicious repressors been forced out
- Popular protests against one-party dictatorships increasing
- Since 1990s, right to establish legal opposition
- Passage of time will reveal: trend or remission
Outgrowths of colonial-era policies – monoeconomies: producing single crops: cacao, rubber, coffee, and palm oil or minerals: copper or bauxite for export Outgrowths of colonial-era policies – monoeconomies: producing single crops: cacao, rubber, coffee, and palm oil or minerals: copper or bauxite for export
Operations owned by Westerners Operations owned by Westerners - Few domestic manufactures, mostly import substitutes
- Emphasis on export crops meant Africans had to buy food instead of growing it
World War II created demand for raw materials; prices rose, African producers prosperous World War II created demand for raw materials; prices rose, African producers prosperous For over a decade, Africa’s GNPs rose, jobs, goods available, towns and villages had new schools, nation had university Africa’s new leaders remained popular
After 1970s oil crisis, economies slid badly - Hit developing countries hard
- Rapid inflation
Combination of reasons Combination of reasons - Diminishing food stocks
- Prolonged drought: Ethiopia, Somalia, and the Sudan
- Civil wars: Sudan, Chad, Angola, Mozambique, and Ethiopia
- Sharp reduction in foreign aid
- Continuing population increase, which was partly offset by the rapid spread of AIDS
¼ of sub-Saharan Africans live in “chronic food insecurity” - ¼ of sub-Saharan Africans live in “chronic food insecurity”
- Labor migrated to cities where jobs are minimal
- People took to living on streets and hawking
- Theft, unknown in African society, became common, along with street violence because of hunger and deprivation
Overwhelming problem Overwhelming problem - Too many people for available resources
- No country tried to limit population growth
Agriculture - only 10% of land is suitable for cropping - Repeated droughts made matters worse
- Rain forest was being destroyed
Pastoralism - Herders increased herds, which put further stress on land
- Sahara Desert expanding southward
Tourism – major income producer Tourism – major income producer Population bomb has exploded - Green Revolution prevented it elsewhere but not in Africa
- Yields do not appear able to rise
Internal and international conflicts Internal and international conflicts Still seems picture of chaos, famine, brutality - Continent holds most of world’s poorest people
- Low life expectancies, high infant mortality
- Low adult literacy rate, little access to higher education
AIDS AIDS - Has hit Africa harder than other parts of the world
- Over 30% of population is infected
- More AIDS deaths than rest of world combined
- Official countermeasures weak, ineffective
- Governments relying on international aid
- Bizarre obstacle in South Africa:
- President Thabo Mbeki deny connection between HIV and AIDS
2002, major rebellions, riots, demonstrations Today, signs of a new harmony: Organization of African Unity (OAU) - Africa’s peacekeeper Intervened in wars in Liberia, Congo-Kinshasa (former Belgian Congo), Darfur, and elsewhere Peace returned to Liberia Violence subsided in other parts of West Africa National elections
Deeply indebted to World Bank, international banks Deeply indebted to World Bank, international banks Structural Adjustment Programs supposed to re-start economies, but require unpopular measures
Malawi, Botswana, Kenya, and Mozambique democratized their politics Malawi, Botswana, Kenya, and Mozambique democratized their politics Better relations between the First and Second Worlds and the African Third World Fantasts, tyrants, and kleptocracies (rules of thieves) lost colonial support New projects to reflect real needs
Mini-grants to enterprising individuals and small groups, especially to women, replaced big programs Mini-grants to enterprising individuals and small groups, especially to women, replaced big programs So far, these have produced much better results Less emphasis on export crops, more on family farming Change in attitudes toward women and their roles Women receiving active support and encouraged to make their voices heard in politics, economy, public affairs generally
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