Science Arena Publications
Specialty Journal of Architecture and Construction
Available online at www.sciarena.com
2016, Vol, 1 (3): 27-35
A survey of the role of Ghaznavid in evolution of great
architecture in Seljuq dynasty
Dr. Seyed Hashem Hosseini
1
, Mohammad Hadi Zare
2
*
1-Assistant Professor of archeology and art in Islamic era, Art University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
E-mail: H.hoseini@Aui.ac.ir
2- Master of archeology, department of archeology, faculty of Humanity, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili,
and Ardabil, Iran. E-mail:
zaremohammadhadi@yahoo.com
Abstract: Based on a logical principle, common arts in a specific period can be affected by the arts of previous
periods. This is true about great art of Seljuq dynasty taking power after Ghaznavid. Regarding the art of
Seljuq era, many arts including architecture, metal work, pottery, brick, etc. were dominant.
One of the dominant arts in Seljuq dynasty was architecture. Most researchers don’t give much consideration
to progress of architecture in Islamic periods of Iran for pre- Seljuq era. This study attempts to evaluate
architectural works of Ghaznavids and apply their literal and historical works namely Beihaghi history
reflecting Ghaznavi era and refer a part of inspiration of Seljuq artists of rich architecture of Ghaznavids era.
This issue has been ignored due to great art and architecture style of Seljuq.
Keywords: Ghaznavid architecture, Seljuq architecture, Islamic era, Beihaghi history
Introduction
Although there are not many architectural works of Ghaznavid dynasty, there are a few buildings in this era
compared to the next era, Seljuq, these few works of architecture well describe Ghaznavid era.
Iranian Cultural Revolution began in Samanid era and transferred as the architectural traditions and much
interest in literature, science and art to the successors, Ghaznavids.
It seems that Ghaznavid architecture continued Samanid architecture but it had also specific properties as
restricted to constructions in Soltan Mahmood and Masoud era. Mahmood Qaznavi as a fanatic warrior achieve
great wealth of his occupations and he was interested in architecture and hired craftsmen from the entire
country. His son, Masoud I followed the love to construction. He didn’t rely only on palaces and gardens, he
built new palaces and established a new capital as Goharshah Masoudi. The kings who took power after Sultan
Masoud completed the previous works. Ghaznavid era in Khorasan and central Iran was short and unstable.
They transferred the center of their activities to the south of Afghanistan and north of India under the pressure
of Seljuq. After Seljuq took power and developed their government, a civilization called Silijug civilization was
created with great importance on political, social and cultural history of our nature. In this era, not only
architecture and industry were followed innovatively, the occupations of Seljuq , extended the industries of Iran
to Mediterranean and even north Africa and Seljuq era had great position in terms of artistic style in Iran and
this era is the great period of Iranian architecture. In this era, architecture art was developed and skillful
artists and architects created many works.
Despite the views of most researchers who don’t give much attention to periods before
Seljuq in architecture
and urbanization of Islamic era of Iran, Ghaznavids had important role in actualization of Persian literature
called Khorasani style and were the most important founders of architecture and Iranian urbanization.
The remaining works of Ghaznavid era
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The only work of Ghaznavid era architecture in Iran country (Kiani, 206, 328) is the buildings of Sangbast.
Sangbast is a village in Mashhad region of Khorasan in the distance 22 miles of south east of Mashhad beside
the main road of Harat (staffs of ministry of war of England, 2001, 569). In a short distance of village, there
was an extensive and important ancient yard as the remaining of Sangbast. The oldest building in Sangbast
was a big and important Ribat. According to valid historical books, Ribat was built by Arsalan Jazeb, king of
Tus in Mahmood Ghaznavi era and he was buried in the same Ribat (Libaf Khaniki, 1999, 43). The second
building in Sangbast was the grave of Arsalan Jazeb (Figure 3). Soil and brick masses are beside the grave of
Arsalan Jazeb as the remaining of famous Ribat of Sangbast (Labaf Khaniki, 1999, 43). Another building is
Ayaz Minaret or Arsalan Jazeb. This minaret is made of brick and some attribute it to Arsalan Jazeb and others
to Sultan Mahmood Qaznavi and he was interested in his slave, Ayaz and it was named after him (Kiani, 2006,
328).
Other works of Ghaznavid era are Chahe Ribat. This building is in 66km of east of Mashhad in Mashhad-Marv
road and it is one of the best examples of architecture of Caravansary as established in Ghaznavid era (Figure
2). According to historians, when Sultan Mahmoud Qhaznavi was regretful of hurting Ferdoosi, great poet of
Iran, sent him some gifts to Tus city. The gifts entered the city but the poet was dead and he was buried in the
cemetery. The only daughter of Ferdousi didn’t receive the gifts and as king soldiers insisted, and his daughter
ordered to build Caravansary for passengers of Mashhad. Ribat or Chahe carbansary was built for the memorial
of Ferdousi (Kiani , 2007:46).
The main manifestation of Sameri in architecture is found among Lashkari Bazar beside Hirmand River in the
southwest of Afganistan between 4-6 Hijri Ghamari (Figure 1). A palace is not an issue here but some series
are observed in irregular intervals in the margin of River (Helin Brand, 1998, 484). Lashkari Bazar is composed
of a big central square, a wide palace, a wide central yard and some minor yards, a hall inspired by Apadana
and Firoozabad palace, a mosque, market and many personal houses of court men and gardens and rivers and
springs and all of them make a unit by which its urbanization map is provided already (Ayatollahi, 2001, 226).
Ghaznavid architecture and its effect on
Seljuq architecture
Due to a few architectural works from Ghaznavid era, our recognition of architectural features of this era is
low. Beside these works, we should refer to valuable literal and historical work of Ghaznavian era as Beihghi
history and it had great role in our recognition to architecture of this period. Based on the remaining works of
architecture of Ghaznavid era, we can investigate the architecture of this era better. Beside our recognition of
the architecture of this era, we can investigate the major role of Ghaznavid architecture on next architecture,
Seljuq.
1-
Using Four-Iwan plan
Although Iwan was used before Islam, Iwan was used for the first time in the first century in Nesa Palace and
Khaje Mountain but its revised example is observed in Party palace of Ashur. In this palace, beside two Iwans
created before in central yard, in second century, two other Iwans were added to central yard making the
building as four-Iwan (Firouzmani, 2007, 222).
It should be said that Iwan was not considered by architects in Partian and Sasanid era. With the advent of
Islam to Iran, was most common in Islamic buildings and Iwan was used mostly in various plans as one-Iwan,
Two-Iwan, and four-Iwan. Four-Iwan was used in most of public and religious places more than other locations
and the reason was creating a good symmetry in buildings. The important point here is the exact time of four-
Iwan plan in Islamic era? Most researchers attribute the application of four-Iwan plan in Islamic era from
Seljuq time and the reason is the numerous works of this era and most of them are built by four-Iwan plan. The
important point is that four-Iwan plan is used in the works remaining of pre- Seljuq era, Ghaznaivd. In many
important works of Ghaznavid era, Chahe caravansary and Lashkari Bazar palace (Figures 1, 2), both of them
applied four-Iwan plan. The construction of these two works was in the era of initial kings of Ghaznavid era,
namely Sultan Mahmoud. Using this plan was common from the beginning of Ghaznavian era and the
architects on that era were familiar with its features and applied this plan in construction of public building s
(Chahe Caravansary) and government buildings (Lashgari Bazar) but as there are not many works in
Ghaznavid era, many researchers developed four-Iwan plan from Seljuq era as by mistake.
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29
1
2
Figure
1- Lashkari Bazar plan (Etinghavezen, Grabar, 2007, 456)
Figure 2- Plan of Chahe Ribat (Kiani, Kilas, 1994, 270).
2-
Construction of schools
Evolution of each educational space indicates a type of specialized activity in society and it needs learning
definite education with planning. At the beginning of Islam, education was based on oral education and mosques
were educational locations (Kiani, 2006, 118).
The construction of schools in Iran was considered from the beginning of Islam and in the early Islamic
dynasties. In Seljuk era, Shafei religion had many followers and one of the famous ministers of Seljuk, Khaje
Nezamolmolk as followers of Shafei religion established schools to propagate this religion and these schools
were called Nezamie. The important point in Nezamie schools was the origin of these buildings. Was Nezamie
schools construction planned or the formations of these buildings were special in Seljuk era?
The construction of schools with the features of Nezamie schools before Seljuk, in Ghaznavid was common and
this is clarified in history of Beihaghi works.
According to Beihaghi works, some schools were built for great teachers of cities in Ghaznavid era to educate
and teach. Ghaznavid kings had great respect to science and knowledge of this school. Teachers were also living
in these schools. The greatest information regarding these schools is dedicated to Sultan Mahmoud era. He
ordered to establish some schools for great teachers of a family as Tabani in various cities of that time and
Beihaghi works refer to construction of two schools in Balkh, Qaznein cities for this family.
One of the schools were in Balkh and Zanbil Bafan and they were built by the order of Sultan Mahmoud for
Busadegh Tabani and this great person taught in it (This school was established in Zanbil Bafan area for
teaching] (Beihaghi, 2002, 255). Another school in Beihaghi history was located in Qaznein beside one of the
gates of city toward Bost. This school was established by the order of Sultan Mahmoud for teaching for Busaleh
Tabani [He sent to Qaznein to be an Imam of Buhanife and he was sent in Bostian for teaching] (Beihaghi,
2002, 245). The respect of teachers , namely Tabani family before Sultan Mahmoud was as he sent his minister
for the death of one of the teachers :[ His respect was high as he said to Abolabas Esfarayni, the minister to go
to the school of this teacher and mourn as he has no child to mourn ](Beihaghi, 2002, 245).
These items show that construction of Nezamie schools in Seljuk era for teachers was used to propagate Shafei
religion and completed the schools of Ghaznavid and were affected by the schools of this era, with the difference
that in Ghaznavid era, instead of Shafei religion, Hanafi religion was propagated. The construction of Nezamie
schools was affected by the schools established with the same aim in Ghaznavid era namely in Sultan Mahmoud
era in various cities on that time. Thus, the initial plan of construction of Nezamie schools is in Ghaznavid
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30
schools as there is nothing of buildings of Ghaznavid schools to show this effect, the books of fBeihaghi history
clarified many realities.
There are some differences among the schools of two eras and the most important of them are difference in
advertising Shafei religion in Nezamie schools of Seljuk era and propagation of Hanafi religion in schools of
Ghaznavid era. Also, naming the schools of Ghaznavid era despite Nezamie schools that Seljukian ca lled them
based on its supporter, Nezamolmolk as Nezamie, it was named after the teacher name.
Another point in schools of Seljukan and Ghaznavian schools is relationship with the term of school. According
to the researchers, the first center as called school was a center established in Togrol era in Neishabour city
(Hatam, 2011:76). This issue showed that the term school was used as a place for learning knowledge for the
first time in Seljukian era and it is not true.
Regarding the school established in Neishabour in Toqrol era, Naserkhosro in a trip to Neishabour saw the
school as under construction and referred to it in his trip log (Naserkhosro, 1984, 3). Its basis is planned in
Ghaznavid era and its final stages were completed in Toqrol era. Although we cannot discuss about this issue
vividl, Neishabour is one of the important cities in Ghaznavid era and its kings established many buildings in
the city and at the beginning of Toqrol era, Neishabour was occupied by him but Sultan Masoud Ghaznavi
released this city of Seljukian.
Regarding the use of the term school for the first time in Seljukian era, writing of Beihaghi history rejects this
issues. In this book, the term school is used regarding construction of schools for the teachers of this era. This
issue shows that the term school was common regarding the education locations in Ghaznavid era and it was
not used for the first time in Seljuk era:[ Go to the school of this teacher and mourn for him as there is no child
to mourn [ Beihaghi, 2002:245].
3-
Wide application of dome
Like Iwan, using dome refers to pre-Islam era to Sasanid era. In Sassanid era, this architecture element was
used mostly in buildings namely chartaqi. With the advent of Islam, dome was accepted as an architectural
element since pre-Islam era and it entered Islamic architecture buildings. Religious buildings as mosques and
tombs had great share in its application. Although there are not many works from the beginning of Islam, to
investigate this issue whether dome was used from the beginning of Islam in Islamic buildings nor not? We can
say dome was used as an architectural element in Islamic era since Seljukian era. This issue is not true, as in
a few of works of periods before Seljukian, Samanian and Ghaznavian, wide use of dome is seen in buildings.
This issue is true not only in Arsalan Jazeb tomb as the only work of Ghaznavid era with dome (Figure 3), the
history of Beihaghi supports it. In one of the stories, Beihaghi referred to some peacocks in a region as Zamin
Davar and these peacocks were bringing child inside domes of houses [In a dome, some peacocks had children](
Beihaghi, 2002, 166).
Figure 3- Tomb of Arsalan
Jazeb (Labaf Khaniki, 1999, 46).
This issue shows that some of
the houses of Ghaznavid era had dome
ceiling above the public houses
that Beihaghi refers to the domed
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ceiling of them. Inside the gardens of this era, beside some Kiosk, there were some houses for various seasons
of year and these houses were called after the relevant season as winter or summer houses. Beihaghi in Kiosks
of Sultan Masoud in Qaznein referred to the domed ceiling of winter house [There was a winter house and dome
on its left side] (Beihaghi 2002, 724). This issue is generalized to other similar houses.
The researches show that most of kiosks of Ghaznavid era are built in two floors and we cannot say the ceiling
of Kiosks of this era was dome form but using dome in public houses and in the houses around kiosks of this
era for various seasons of year showed wide use of dome in the buildings of this era. Although dome was used
for the first time in Sassanid era, it is not true that Seljukian were inspired by Sassanid era to use domes in
their buildings. In recognized dome buildings of Sassanid era, transition of square form of building to circle one
was fulfilled by curved surfaces (Godar, 2011, 94). In the dome of tomb of Arsalan Jazeb in Sang Bost, in
chapiresasi, after Gushesazi, octagonal was turned into circle by Zhaghs and this was an advance form of
Chapiresasi and it shows that this technique was not in primary stage (PIrnia, 2011, 173).
This issue showed the wide progress of dome in Ghaznavid era and with its interior decorations as brick work
under dome is performed as Khofte and Raste. Most of Sasanid buildings are located in South West of Iran, a
part of Iran less dominant under Seljuk dynasty, thus, the effect of Sassanid buildings on Seljuk works was
decreased but central parts of Iran and namely great Khorasan in Ghaznavid era were the first parts under the
dominance of Seljukian. Thus, the effect of Ghaznavid architecture on Seljuk works as general and partial was
much more than the Sasanid architecture effect.
4-Using minaret in buildings
Despite most of archeologists as Professor Godar who believed that Minaret was innovated by Arabs (Kiani,
2006, 326), Minaret is one of the buildings as independent in pre-Islam era. Beside roads of Iran namely in
desert and forest trees, tall buildings as Minaret are found observed from a long distance. These buildings were
built at first to guide passengers as most of them are turned in to tomb (Pirnia, 2011, 494) and sometimes it is
a memorial building.
In Islamic era, Minaret had different applications. In addition, some applications as guiding Minaret and
memorial building, the most important application of Minaret in Islam era were a decorative factor in religious
buildings. In Islamic era, there were a few religious buildings as tombs, schools and namely mosques in which
Minaret was not used to decorate building. The position of Minaret in Islamic era namely in mosques was
different in various governments. Sometimes it was located above entrance Iwan to main Shabistan of mosque
and sometimes the entrance door of mosques was decorated with Minaret. Sometimes, it was located in a short
distance of mosques and sometimes it was beside entrance Iwan to the main entrance of Shabistan and not
above it. Thus, a definite location is not found for it.
These items show that in Islamic era, Minaret was used to decorate building compared to pre-Islam era but
other applications as guiding Minaret and memorial building was considered in Islam era. One of the Islamic
governments giving much importance to Minaret in the buildings is Seljuk dynasty. In this era, Minaret was
used considerably in buildings but the application of Minaret as a memorial building was mostly considered.
In different cities of Seljuk namely in their capital, Isfahan, there were many Minarets and most of them were
memorial and their manufacturers established them for various goals as memorial of themselves and their
families. Ghaznavid era considered Minaret as a memorial before Seljuk dynasty. Some of the Minarets were
used not only to Say Azan for prayers, but also as memorial for the victory of Islam (Brand, 2004, 76). Famous
brick towers of Ghaznavid in Ghaznein showed the stability of brick building and it was also transferred to
other areas in Iran (Hatam, 2004, 173). There are some Minarets of Ghaznavid era and they show that
Ghaznavid kings were interested to establish Minaret as memorial and they viewed it less as decorative
building. The major decorative factor in Minarets of this era is an inscription of brick and the building itself
was made by it. This issue showed that brick had the main role in Minaret in Ghaznavid era. The only Minarets
of Ghaznavid era with decorations except Brick are Minaret of Sultan Masoud and Minaret of Bahram Shah in
Ghaznein. The Minaret was mostly used as memorial in Ghaznavid era and this was continued in Seljukian
era.
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Another point regarding Ghaznavid minarets and Siljuk is the similarities between Minarets of Ghaznavid and
Seljuk Minarets in terms of location of Minaret and in terms of forms. In addition, in Seljuk era, the building
was inspired by Ghaznavid and Minaret was used as memorial and brick was used to construct Minaret as
main material and it was most similarity between Minarets of Seljuk and Ghaznavid.
Most of Seljuk Minarets were cylinder form as being narrow from bottom to up. The best example is Minaret of
Tarikhane of Damghan and based on Kufi inscription was added with the aid of Bakhtiar Massive Mosque
Mohammad to Tarikhane house (Kiani, 2007, 42). The lower part of this Minaret was wide and as we go higher,
its width is decreased. The plan of this Minaret is compared to Minarets of Sultan Masoud III and Minaret of
Bahram Ghaznavid in Ghaznein (Figure 4, 5). These Minarets had wide lower part than its upper part and as
we go higher, it becomes narrow. The Minarets of Sultan Masoud III and Bahram Shah Ghaznavid were older
than Seljuk Minarets. This form of Minaret of Ghaznavid was transferred to Seljuk. An important point in
forms in Seljuk Minarets and their imitation of Ghaznavid Minarets, we can refer to the bases of Minarets. The
basis of some of Minarets of Ghaznavid namely Ghaznein Minarets (Sultan Masoud and Bahram Shah
Minarets) were octagonal.
4
5
Figure 4: Minaret of Masoud Ghaznavi (Brand 2004, 76)
Figure5: - Minaret of Bahram Shah Hill, Grabar, 2007:74
This basic form was used in Seljuk era and namely those in capital, Isfahan and most of them had octagonal
basis. One of the most important Minarets is Gar, Chehel Dokhtaran and Sareban Minarets.
The comparison of the location of Minaret is considerable in two government periods. Above using Minaret as
memorial as built as single, location of Minaret outside of building and attached to external wall in both periods
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is considerable. Such feature is observed in buildings of Ghaznavid era in Sang Bost. The Minaret in Sang Bost
is a memorial building and some people attribute it to Sultan Mahmood Ghaznavid and due to high interest to
their slave, Ayaz, it was established for his name (Kiani, 2006, 328). IN the southeast, wall works as relying on
Minaret were observed and it was as the Minaret was attached to a building (Labaf Khaniki, 1999:44).
This feature was continued in primary works of Seljuk. One of the most important works is Minarets of Massive
Mosque of Kashan, Minaret of Damghan Massive Mosque, Minaret of Save Massive Mosque and Minaret of
Pamenar Zavare mosque (Figures 6, 7). In all these buildings, Minarets were outside the building and were
attached to the external wall. Most of the Minarets were built in Toqrol and Alb Arsalan Seljuk kingdom and
primary kings of Seljuk in construction of Minaret imitated Ghaznavid Minarets, the next kings of Seljuk
performed some innovations in this regard and applied Minaret as a decorative building in buildings.
6
7
Figure 6- Minaret of Saveh Massive Mosque (Hatam, 2011, 53)
Figure 7- Minaret of Massive Mosque of Kashan (Hatam, 2011, 54)
5-Plastery
Gypsum was not a decorative instrument in Seljuk era and only in some mosques of this era, Mihrabs were
made of Gypsum as in Majid Jami of Nayin, its major part was dedicated to before Seljuk era, but in this era,
basic changes were made and beautiful plaster was on mosque. After Islam, icon was not used but in plaster, a
combination of faces is found and the artists attempt to revitalize the methods (Pirnia, 2011, 148).
Regarding plaster in Ghaznavid era, we can refer to the interest of kings of this dynasty to plaster and painting
on plaster. This issue is proved by the remaining works of this period and based on Beihaghi history, a great
discovery in Lashkari Bazar place in Bost, wall paintings of 44 Turkish guards on the lateral walls of court
showed that based on Sultan Mahmoud Ghasnavi tradition in festivals and in open space, they took the crown
in the presence of four guards (Hilen Brand, 1998, 485). The bodies were full and feet profile. The faces were
destroyed in fire of back areas and were in ¾ of profile and with circle around their head. The bodies had short
sleeve garment and only the neck was observed and there was a long garment as closed from the left side
(Pakbaz, 2010, 51). Also, Beihaghi history refers to gypsum and painting on plaster in Ghaznavid era.
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In one of the stories, Beihaghi referred to a palace in Harat city with Adnani palace and there was a special
house for Sultan Masoud in a corner of Garden to welcome Sultan at noon. The entire house was full of symbols
showing most of naked women and men. This house and its images were covered with plaster as Sultan
Mahmoud found about them: [He order to cover the walls with plaster as there was no image before and they
locked the house] (Beihaghi, 2002, 175).
Conclusion
The remaining works of Ghaznavid era and historical writing of Beihaghi history showed a great architecture
in Ghaznavid era. This architecture was not only unique but also it imitated most of architectural elements,
Seljuk.
Great book of Beihaghi referred to construction of palaces, mosques, castles and gardens as built by two great
kings in Ghaznavid era, Sultan Mahmoud and his son, Sultan Masoud. How a government like Seljuk before
being an important government could progress in various artistic fields without any background. Ghaznavid
event didn’t permit the heads of Seljuk tribe in their government domain and according to Beihaghi history,
Seljuk dynasty were obliged to exit the land by Sultan Mahmoud and Masoud. In the late Sultan Masoud
government, due to the weakness of this Sultan, they could influence Ghaznavid government and they were
influenced by the art of Ghaznavid in architecture and extended this art to west and center of Iran and even it
influenced central Asia and it was combined with its art.
Despite similarities between architecture of Ghaznavid and Seljuk and the inspiration of Seljuk by Ghaznavid
architecture, many researchers didn’t give much importance for architecture and other Islamic era arts before
Seljuk era and as we discuss about arts of Islamic era, its early or peak periods are in Seljuk era before Seljuk
era, there were many important governments as Samanid and Ghaznavid and they played important role in
formation of Islamic era art namely architecture. This role was ignored only due to the lack of adequate
evidences of architecture of these periods and it had no effect.
What is stated about Ghaznavid architecture, we can say valuable architecture of Seljuk era reduced
importance of architecture of Ghaznavid. In Seljuk era, a type of artistic revolution was formed and this
government behaved in various arts to mislead future generation and the name of Seljuk remained in art in
great history. We cannot ignore that in Seljuk era, there were great artists and art loving politicians and great
kings supported these artists and sometimes the art itself caused that the ministers had conflicts with each
other as in Massive Mosque of Isfahan, Nezamolmolk and Taj Molk domes were the result of competition of
these two ministers. We cannot ignore architecture of Ghaznavid era and don’t consider any effect on Seljuk
architecture.
Most of the works of Ghaznavid are outside Iran borders and in current Afghanistan and due to civil war, they
are not investigated and this caused that we don’t have clear information of architecture.
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