63
Notes
1. These materials are covered in the discussion of
Valtonen 2008.
2. A theory of a language shift was advanced more than
a century ago by K.B. Wiklund; on this and related
discussions, see Aikio 2004: 6–7; 2012: 80–81.
3. Lehtiranta reconstructs to the period described in the
terminology that he uses as ‘Middle Proto-Sámi’
(keskikantasaame) whereas Aikio’s ‘Proto-Sámi’
corresponds more closely to the ‘Late Proto-Sámi’ in
Lehtiranta’s terminology. The main difference is that
Lehtiranta follows the earlier standard practice of
presenting *ō for *uo, long bottom-open o (not
available in most electronic fonts) for *oa, *ē for *ie
and *ɛ
̈̄ for *ea in stressed-syllables (cf. Korhonen
1981: 76). I very much appreciate Juha Kuokkala’s
assistance in navigating the differences in
terminology used by these and other scholars, as well
as how the different terms get related to the
chronology of specific phonological changes.
4. E.g. Sammallahti 1998; see also the review of models
of Uralic language stemmas in Syrjänen et al. 2013;
this view seems, however, to be rapidly changing:
see e.g. Saarikivi 2011; Zhivlov 2014; Kallio 2015a.
5. Jorma Koivulehto (2001: 239–247) has discussed an
extremely early group of Indo-European loans, of
which a significant proportion are attested only in
Sámi languages (see also Sammalahti 2012: 99; cf.
Kallio 2009). The number of relevant etymologies is
limited, but if Koivulehto’s interpretation is
accepted, it would suggest a very early separation of
Finnic and Sámi from a dialect of Proto-Uralic
(Aikio 2012: 75–76).
6. The Common Proto-Sámi vocabulary for livestock
animals outside of reindeer appears to have entered
through Proto-Scandinavian contacts after Proto-
Sámi spread (cf. Lehtiranta 2001: §499 ‘cow’, §1114
‘sheep’, §1407 ‘ram’).
7. The customary semantics attributed to the Germanic
source word relate it to ‘bog ore’ (~ ON rauði [‘bog
ore’], cf. rauðr [‘red’]) (e.g. Viitso 2012: 189); a
more compelling proposal is that EPG *rauđan- was
also the earlier word for ‘iron’ and was then replaced
by the Proto-Celtic *īsarno- [‘iron’] → EPG
*īsarna- ~ *īsarna- [‘iron’] (Kallio 2015a: 30; see
also Kroonen 2013: 271, s.v. ‘*īsarna- ~ *īzarna-’).
8. The dating of this loan is problematic. The word
could have been borrowed already with the
introduction of iron objects before the introduction
of iron-working technologies (Kallio 2015a: 30).
9. Aikio designates this the ‘east dialect’, but his
designations consider surviving descendants of
Proto-Sámi dialects. The terminology here allows
for labelling additional Proto-Sámi dialects that, in
the future, may be distinguished through toponymy
and other loanword vocabulary.
10. Swedish toponymy with the element Lapp- seems to
indicate that mobile groups were active both in the
archipelago of southwest Finland during the medieval
period (Heikkilä 2014: 316) and in roughly adjacent
areas of Sweden, whence they spread to the north and
inland (Zachrisson et al. 1997: 187). The macro-
toponym Fin(n)land also suggests Scandinavians
earlier identified the populations of Southwest
Finland on the trans-Baltic route with the mobile
groups they called Finnar (see Frog & Saarikivi
2014/2015: 81–82). (See also Olsen 1995; Zachrisson
et al. 1997; see Salo 2000; Zachrisson 2008.
11. Rydving’s regions were designated: southern,
central, northern and Kemi Saami.
12. The formulation of the axiom is Kristiansen’s (2009:
115–116), earlier presented as one of several
“assumptions” in an argument about Proto-Indo-
European spread that is not relevant here.
13.
In his discussion of radical changes in Scandinavian
ritual practices during the Migration Period, Andreas
Nordberg (2012) stresses that these most likely
reflects reconfigurations within existing mythologies
and broader religious frameworks. The changes
mentioned in Proto-Sámi societies seem primarily to
have affected social organization, and thus may have
only impacted particular social domains and practices.
14.
The purpose in this article is to open the question of
whether Proto-Sámi language spread in conjunction
with religion. For the sake of discussion,
Lehtiranta’s etymologies are accepted without
detailed review. Most important here are the items of
Proto-Sámi vocabulary themselves.
15.
Centrality is conceived of in terms of the number of
interdependencies which would be affected within a
system if it were to change (see Converse 1964).
16.
Some of the examples listed by Lehtiranta as having
Finnic cognates are identified here as loans because
they have not been affected by the Great Sámi Vowel
Shift (e.g. *vājmō below).
17.
See also Sammallahti 2012: 102; such languages are
perhaps impossible to unravel from the toponymy.
18.
This definition is adapted from Valk 2012: 23.
19.
See Itkonen 1976: 12–25; Kulonen et al. 2005: 408;
see also Qvigstad 1925: Märchen types 313–314,
475, 1000–1167; legend types 134–145.
20.
On the concept of tradition dominant, see Eskeröd
1947: 79–81; Honko 1981a: 23–24; 1981b: 35–36.
21.
Lid 1933: 61–62; cf. ONP, s.v. ‘stál
2
’; cf. Cleasby &
Vigfússon 1896: 589, s.v. ‘stál
3, II
’; de Vries 1961:
542, s.v. ‘stál’; Kroonan 2013: 472, s.v. ‘*stahla-’,
472–473, s.v. ‘*stalla-’, 475, s.v. ‘*staþla-’; ON stáli
is only attested as a name epithet (four examples in
in ONP, s.v. ‘stáli’); although stáli may have
resonated with stál [‘steel’], there are not
corresponding uses of járn [‘iron’] to form a name-
epithet or term for ‘man’. The statement in Kulonen
et al. (2005: 408) that, “It has not been possible to
establish the origin of the word stállu with any
certainty,” seems exaggerated.
22.
E.g. the epithets bjálki [‘rafter’], dettiáss [‘thud-
beam’], skǫkull [‘cart-pole’], stafr [‘staff’] and stǫng
[‘pole’] (Uckelman 2011). These epithets may have
carried sexual connotations.
23.
The most striking of these has been comparison with
a Sámi Christmas mumming tradition in northern
Norway where stállu is the term (or part of the term)
for the otherworld visitor (see also Itkonen 1976: 14;
Gunnell 1995: 105). However, Lid’s comparisons
are limited by the methodology of his time. They are
problematic because: a) the review of stállu traditions
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