183
the
result of the act is always contrary to the
intention: Svyatogor wants to kill his destined
wife, but instead he heals her illness. He wants
to
possess her for eternity, but he instead loses
her forever. Ilya, in comparison, wants to kill
Svyatogor in the field, but instead he wakes
him. Then he wants to release him from the
coffin but instead he binds him there for
eternity, and so on. What was the meaning of
this narrative pattern?
One possible interpretation is that it is a
narrative attempt to comprehensively express the
ambivalence of the relations between the
characters of the story. It seems that this pattern
always turns up in a situations where social
relations between characters are somehow
overestimated or underestimated (i.e. when
someone wants to kill the other or to keep him
or her forever). The ‘pattern of the reversed
effect’ could be the representation of the
ambivalent, questionable and psychologically
unjustifiable moral nature of the particular
acts: Ilya ‘loves’ his mentor so much that he
buries him by means of his attempts to release
him. Svyatogor ‘loves’ his wife so much that
he forces her to adultery by means of his
excessive efforts to harness and bind her. The
narrative schema tries to disguise these
inevitable but morally dubious acts (as killing
of the mentor) as seemingly good, benevolent
intentions, only with the reversed effect.
Unconscious psychological content is thus
transformed into the symbolic form of the
narrative, in which it is rationalized and
idealised. But it eventually need to be resolved
in a way the story wants it to:
tragically.
The second option for the interpretation –
which could be perceived as an amendment to
the first one – can
be proposed in regard to the
central role of the
inevitability of the fate
motive. During my analysis, it became apparent
that everything Svyatogor does to prevent his
predestined fate eventually leads to the exact
result that was prophesized or predestined,
which is again the result of the ‘pattern of the
reversed effect’. However, this could also be
the manifestation of a general human experience
when an individual can never see the purpose
or the direction of his or her fate in the present.
He or she can only grasp it retrospectively.
Only from retrospection can the past can reveal
its true sense. What at first looked like a blessed
state of being turns out to be a passing delusion,
later leading to tragic situations. And vice versa:
what at first seems to be a catastrophic and
unfair chain of events can, viewed in retrospect,
turn out to simply be a path leading to positive
outcomes.
The motive ‘things are not what they seem
to be’ can be found in the Svyatogor’s
bylinas
at varioius points.A small bag is in fact filled
with the weight of the whole earth. A sick
woman covered in scabs is
actually a beautiful
girl. What looks like an ordinary coffin is,
upon closer inspection, a deadly trap. That
invigorating breath is actually a deadly
temptation. These heroes find out the true
nature of their acts only
ex post.
The possible moral lesson that the
Svyatogor
bylinas may have provided to its
audience is that to rebel against one’s destiny
is always futile, that such rebellion only leads
to a series of tragic events that fulfil the destiny
an individual was trying to avoid. As Oedipus,
who was predestined to kill his father and
marry his mother, experienced, all efforts to
avoid this lead to the exact fulfilment of one’s
destiny. And so it went for Svyatogor. The
Svyatogor narratives communitate that no man
can escape from his destiny, no matter how
hard he tries.
Inaccessible to the everyday man, only the
epic and mythological hero has the ability to
know his fate in advance.Stories about tragic
heroes such as Svyatogor – who ‘knows more’
and yet is powerless to stop the mechanisms of
fate – could work as a means of comfort for
everyday people, the listeners of the epics,
functioning as a means deal with the unexpected
‘structural twists’ of their own life narratives.
Even though Svyatogor was probably a
negative example, his status of the ‘elder
bogatyr’ and as a mentor of Ilya Muromets make
him an important part of the East Slavic oral epic
tradition. By studying his story and its twists,
mirrorings, and allusions, we can more easily
understand some of the other regularities found
among the inner narrative dynamics and story-
telling topics of the bylinaic epics. Eventually
perhaps we can even reveal complex genetic
and typological connections with the other
Eurasian epic and mythological traditions.
184
Master Poets, Ritual Masters: The Art of Oral Composition among the Rotenese
of Eastern Indonesia
James J. Fox, Australian National University
A monograph published by Australian National University Press, Canberra 2016; xv + 444 pages.
This is a study in oral poetic composition. It
examines how oral poets compose their
recitations. Specifically, it is a study of the
recitations of seventeen separate master poets
from the Island of Rote recorded over a period
of fifty years. Each of these poets offers his
version of what is culturally considered to be
the ‘same’ ritual chant. These compositions are
examined in detail and their oral formulae are
carefully compared to one another.
Professor James J. Fox is an anthropologist
who carried out his doctoral field research on
the Island of Rote in eastern Indonesia in
1965–66. In 1965, he began recording the oral
traditions of the island and developed a close
association with numerous oral poets on the
island. After many subsequent visits, in 2006,
he began a nine-year project that brought
groups of oral poets to Bali for week-long
recording sessions. Recitations gathered over a
period of fifty years are the basis for this book.
The book is available in an open-access
electronic format. For further information,
please visit the publisher’s website at:
https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/master-
poets-ritual-masters.
(Magic) Staffs in the Viking Age
Leszek Gardeła, University of Rzeszów
A monograph published as volume 27 in the series Studia Medievalia Septentionalia by Verlag Fassbaender (Vienna
2016, 348 pages).
In December 2016, a new book by Leszek
Gardeła entitled
(Magic) Staffs in the Viking
Age was released as volume 27 of the academic
series Studia Medievalia Septentrionalia. The
monograph is partly based on the author’s
doctoral dissertation, entitled
Entangled
Worlds: Archaeologies of Ambivalence in the
Viking Age, which was defended in 2012 at the
University of Aberdeen Department of
Archaeology, but has been fully revised for the
purpose of publication to include previously
unreleased material and new interpretations.
The monograph explores the motif of the
magic staff in the Viking Age from an
interdisciplinary perspective and in a broad
cross-cultural context. A magic staff is defined
in a general sense as an object with special
properties deriving from the material that was
used to produce it, or the appearance, words,
and actions of its bearer. The author argues