particularly the case for a concise history of Germany that some brutal decisions
about selection and omission have had to be made. While readers will all have
their own views on the matter, the author has had to make particular choices. In
terms of space devoted to different periods, the book operates on the landscape
principle: things nearer to the observer loom larger, are perceived in closer
detail, than the mistier general views of the distant horizons. Thus chapters
generally deal with progressively shorter periods of time as the present is neared.
Within the general landscape surveyed some features appear more important
than others. The problem of ‘teleology’ is well known to historians: there is a
tendency to notice particularly features pointing towards the present, explaining
developments partly in terms of their consequences (whether or not participants
were aware of their ‘contributions’ to historical ‘progress’), and to ignore
turnings that led nowhere. While there has been a healthy reaction against this in
recent historical writing, it is still the case that certain developments appear more
important from the point of view of current concerns than do others. And all
authors inevitably have their own particular interests, enthusiasms and blind
spots, however hard they try to be balanced and objective in coverage. There is
also the particular problem, in relation to the history of ‘Germany’, of the limits
of what is held to be its proper subject matter. In this volume the history of
Austria has had to be considered only insofar as it was an integral part of
‘Germany’ at different times, or interrelated with the history of modern Germany
since 1871. Austria, while perhaps the most obvious, is not the only area to
suffer in this way: the boundaries of ‘Germany’ have been extremely changeable
over the centuries.
A wide-ranging work such as this must rely heavily on researches undertaken
by others, and represent a synthesis of existing knowledge and often quite
conflicting views, while yet developing a coherent overall account. The author is
painfully aware of gaps and inadequacies in the present analysis, but hopes at
least that in presenting a broad framework which spans the centuries two useful
purposes will have been accomplished. This book may present a basis and
stimulus for subsequent more detailed exploration of particular aspects; it may
also serve to locate existing knowledge and interests of readers within a wider
interpretive framework. The book is intended as a form of large-scale map which
can be used as a context for finer investigation of details along the way.
I am tremendously grateful to my colleagues and friends who have read and
made valuable comments on parts of the manuscript, saving me from factual
errors and inappropriate interpretations. I would like in particular to thank the
following for their painstaking efforts to improve the text: David Blackbourn;
Ian Kershaw; Timothy McFarland; Rudolf Muhs; Hamish Scott; Bob Scribner;
Jill Stephenson; Martin Swales. Obviously, I alone am responsible for the
inadequacies which remain. The work benefited from a small grant from the
UCL Dean’s Fund enabling me to spend some time combing libraries, museums
and archives for suitable illustrative material. The choice of appropriate
illustrations was almost as difficult as the construction of the text, and raised as
many problems of selection, interpretation and omission. Discerning readers will
notice that illustrations of personalities and familiar sights have generally been
demoted in favour of representation of broader themes and more remote periods
or places. Finally, I would also like to thank my husband and my three children
for being willing to spend innumerable summers wandering around central
Europe in search of aspects of the German past.
PREFACE TO THE UPDATED EDITION (1992)
First of all, I would like to thank Dr Werner Schochow of Berlin for pointing out
to me some errors of detail which crept unnoticed into the first edition, and for
suggesting certain amendments to the index. I am extremely grateful to him for
his close and careful reading of the text, and the trouble he took in providing
detailed comments and suggestions.
I have also taken the opportunity to put discussion of West Germany into the
past tense (East Germany having already suffered that fate at the time of the first
edition). While much of what was ‘West Germany’ has of course passed over
into the enlarged Federal Republic after unification in 1990, nevertheless united
Germany is a new entity, and it would be prejudging its development in a quite
a-historical fashion to suggest that what was true of the pre-1990 Federal
Republic will continue to obtain in the new, rather lop-sided united Federal
Republic, which faces both new domestic challenges and a changed European
context.
Mary Fulbrook
London, October 1991
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION (2004)
For the Second Edition, I have made a number of minor changes throughout the
text, to reflect the changing viewpoints of the present, and the implications of
recent scholarship. A new chapter has been added on Germany since 1990. The
bibliography has been drastically pruned and substantially updated.But I have
chosen not to tinker dramatically with the main body of the book, which has now
proved its usefulness as an accessible overview for a wide range of readers
across the English-speaking world and in a number of foreign translations.
Mary Fulbrook
London, March 2003
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION (2019)
The Third Edition includes a radically expanded chapter on Germany since
1990, taking account of the dramatic transformations in Germany’s character and
international standing in the decades since unification. I have lightly updated the
Bibliography, but have again chosen not to alter the main body of the text
covering previous periods of history. I hope this will continue to serve as a guide
for readers to pursue areas of interest in greater depth, and to debate with the
interpretations presented here.
Mary Fulbrook
London, October 2018
1
Introduction: the German lands and people
◈
In a famous and much-quoted verse, those two most renowned German writers,
Goethe and Schiller, posed the question which has been at the heart of much
German history: ‘Deutschland? aber wo liegt es? Ich weiss das Land nicht zu
finden.’ (‘Germany? But where is it? I know not how to find the country.’) They
went on to put their finger succinctly on a further problem of the Germans: ‘Zur
Nation
euch zu bilden, ihr hoffet es, Deutsche, vergebens; / Bildet, ihr könnt es,
dafür freier zu Menschen euch aus.’ (‘Any hope of forming yourselves into a
nation
, Germans, is in vain; develop yourselves rather – you can do it – more
freely as human beings!’) Between them, these quotations encapsulate perhaps
the most widespread general notions about Germany and the Germans –
although of course Goethe and Schiller could hardly foresee, let alone be held
responsible for, what was to come. A belated nation, which became unified too
late, and a nation, at that, of ‘thinkers and poets’ who separated the freedom of
the sphere of the spirit from the public sphere and the powers of the state; a
nation which, notoriously, eventually gave rise – whatever its contributions in
literature and music – to the epitome of evil in the genocidal rule of Adolf Hitler.
A nation with an arguably uniquely creative culture and uniquely destructive
political history; a nation uniquely problematic, tormented, peculiar, with its own
strange, distorted pattern of history. And a nation uniquely efficient, in every
transformation becoming a ‘model’ of its kind.
As with all platitudes, there is some element of truth in these generalisations;
and as with all generalisations, there is much which is oversimplified,
misleading, and downright wrong. Perhaps the most misleading aspect of all
these statements is the underlying assumption that there is some simple entity,
the ‘Germans’, who have an enduring national identity revealing itself over the
ages in all the twists and turns of a tortuous national history. The realities are
infinitely more complex. There is a geographical complexity, with a range of
peoples speaking variants of the German language across a central European
area, in which over the centuries there has been a great diversity of political
forms, which have for most of ‘Germany’s’ history included also non-German-
speaking peoples. There is a historical complexity, with as much contingency
and accident as predetermined drive along any evolutionary path to a pre-
ordained end. And there is the complexity inherent in the nature of
reconstructing and writing a history of a shifting entity, itself constituted in the
light of current concerns and interest. For many people, recent times will appear
infinitely the most interesting; remoter periods will remain – for all but the few,
fascinated by a far-removed culture – by way of a ‘background’, a setting of the
scene, to know what the situation was ‘when the story began’. Even a decision
about the latter, the starting point, is to some extent arbitrary. All reconstructed
history is a human construction from the perspective of certain interests,
conscious or otherwise.
For most English-speaking people until 1989, ‘Germany’ would have meant
the Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany, with its capital in Bonn. To
others, the German Democratic Republic, or East Germany, would be included,
created as it was out of the ruins of defeated Nazi Germany. Most people today
would not even think of Austria, let alone Switzerland, as candidates for being
included in ‘Germany’; yet it was only in 1871 that Austria was excluded from
the unified ‘small Germany’, under Prussian domination, of Imperial Germany.
German-speaking Switzerland separated, even from the ‘Holy Roman Empire of
the German Nation’, many centuries earlier. And, of course, there are other areas
in central Europe which were either previously included in some German states
– as, for example, those former German territories now in Poland and Russia –
or where there were or are substantial German-speaking minorities under other
governments. For some historians, Germany’s politically and geographically
insecure and contested central European location –
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