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Peter K. Austin
Notes
1. For further suggestions about the role of fieldnotes in documenting languages
and cultures it can be useful to look at textbooks on anthropology and ethno-
graphy, such as Brewer 2000, Wolcott 2004.
2. There are a range of video editing programs, including commercially available
software such as Adobe Premiere or freeware such as VirtualDub.
3. The Guwamu data was collected by the late Stephen A. Wurm in 1955 at Goo-
dooga in Queensland from the late Willy Willis and made available to me for
study in 1980. The annotations and glossing are based on Wurm’s translations
and my analysis of the materials.
4. The Shoebox/Toolbox tool automatically creates the appearance of vertical
alignment in its interlinear text function, though it actually stores spaces in the
data files to do so. Note that it does not store the relationships between the
aligned information and rather relies on the user’s implicit knowledge to inter-
pret these.
5. The chosen example is deliberately simple in order to present the main con-
cepts here; in practice lexical entries may have much more complex structures
and relationships.
6. A number of commercial and freeware editors are available; cf. the list attached
to this volume. The screenshots below show views within the ElfData XML
editor (see http://www.elfdata.com).
7. A simple concatentative item-and-arrangement morphological model is adopted
here for purposes of illustration (this is the model assumed by the Shoebox
software); other morphological models could be used and represented in XML.
For further discussion of the structure of interlinear text and a proposal for rep-
resenting it in XML using the annotated graph formalism (Bird and Liberman
2001) see Bow, Hughes, and Bird 2003; and Hughes, Bird, and Bow 2003.
Chapter 5
The ethnography of language and
language documentation
Jane H. Hill
Introduction
Documentary linguistics takes up a vision of the integration of the study of
language structure, language use, and the culture of language. Documentary
linguistics demands integration. If we are to succeed in sensitive documen-
tation, which by definition requires the deep involvement of communities,
we must incorporate a cultural and ethnographic understanding of language
into the very foundations of our research. Indeed, documentary linguistics,
because of practical necessity, may have a better chance of sustaining such
an integrated project than did its predecessors.
1
This chapter focuses on three requirements for the integration of the
study of the culture of language into documentary linguistics that have an
immediate practical relevance for this new discipline. The first is to move
forward with the foundational idea from Hymes’ (1971) formulation of the
ethnography of speaking, as the study of the way that language structures
and uses are diversely and locally organized in the cultures of local speech
communities. Documentary linguists need to be ethnographers, because
they venture into communities that may have very different forms of lan-
guage use from those of the communities in which they were socialized as
human beings or trained as scholars.
The second requirement is to attend to the cultural foundations of elici-
tation and second language learning specifically. Documentary linguists
undertake to inhabit a very peculiar role, that of adult second language
learner in communities that almost never encounter such a creature. Simi-
larly, their consultants enter into relationships that are without precedent in
their communities. Together, they constitute so-called communities of prac-
tice, local micro-societies that are very likely to produce emergent forms of
language and interaction that evolve very rapidly. Recent work on commu-
nities of practice, specifically learning communities, provide very useful
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Jane H. Hill
theoretical foundations for understanding what is likely to go on in these
most dynamic of local systems, where goals and routines are negotiated at
the level of distinct individuals.
The last requirement is attention to language ideology. One of the reasons
history speeds up at the margins is that oppression and marginalization –
and minority and indigenous language communities are almost by definition
oppressed and marginalized – produces a special intensification of language-
ideological projects. These can silence the voices of speakers, render un-
tenable the presence of a researcher, or impede the distribution and imple-
mentation of the products of research, even within the community. Recent
advances in our understanding of the semiotics of language ideologies pro-
vide very useful tools for documentary linguists, who must be able not only
to identify and work among clashing ideological discourses, but assist
communities with what Nora and Richard Dauenhauer (1998) have called
“ideological clarification” to bring these discourses into line with what a
community truly desires for endangered-language resources.
1. The ethnography of language:
Relativity and the organization of diversity
Most linguists attend almost exclusively to what Michael Silverstein (1979
and elsewhere) calls “denotational text.” We can state the formal properties
of declarative vs. interrogative vs. imperative sentences, for instance, with-
out really paying much attention to the well-known fact that both assertions
and questions can function as commands, or that commands can be made
only under certain social conditions. But documentary linguistics on lan-
guages that are no longer taken for granted, where every construction car-
ries a heavy political burden, really does not permit us the luxury of this
particular reduction. We can find practical help in some of the foundational
principles of the ethnography-of-language tradition.
The first of these principles is that speech communities will differ not
only in manifesting different kinds of language structures, but in manifesting
different patterns of use. An ethnography of the distribution of registers,
speech-act types, and the like across the contextual landscape is critical to
linguistic documentation. For instance, certain kinds of syntactic construc-
tions may occur only in certain registers, so that even basic elicitation strate-
gies will require ethnographic preparation. Hymes’ well-known
SPEAKING
heuristic provides a rule of thumb to help us notice patterns of usage. The
acronym “
SPEAKING
” abbreviates some of the major components of the