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participating in this group were less productive than the children in the authoritative group, but that their contributions were higher in quality. While democratic leaders have the final say over decision- making, other group members are encouraged to participate, and this makes them feel more engaged and motivated in the process, which results in them being more creative. Laissez-Fair or Delegative Leadership In a laissez-fair leadership, the leader takes a hands-off approach and leaves all decision-making up to the group. Lewin found that this type of leadership style was the least productive. He noted that children placed in this group demanded more from the leader, could not work independently, and showed very little cooperation. If members of a group are highly qualified in particular areas, a laissez-fair type of leadership can be effective; however, most of the time it leads to a lack of motivation from group members and poorly defined roles. Kurt Lewin’s focus on behavior of the individual in relation to their environment—and not past experiences—was groundbreaking work, and Lewin is considered by many to be one of the founding fathers of social psychology. His incorporation of Gestalt principles, understanding of situational influences, and work in group dynamics and leadership greatly impacted how psychologists approach and understand social behavior. CARL JUNG (1875–1961) Introverts, extroverts, and the unconscious Carl Jung was born on July 26th, 1875, in Kesswil, Switzerland. The son of a pastor, Jung was the only child out of four to survive. Jung’s mother battled with depression and was frequently absent from his home until the family moved to Basel when Jung was four years old. Jung recalled that as a child, he preferred to be in isolation, and felt happiest when he was alone. In 1887, at the age of twelve, Jung was thrown to the ground by a classmate and became unconscious. As a result of this incident, Jung began to suffer from neurotic fainting spells. Though he quickly noticed that fainting allowed him to get out of going to school, these fainting episodes were not fake, but were actually the result of neuroses. For six months, Jung stayed home and doctors feared he suffered from epilepsy. One day, Jung overheard his father talking to someone about how he feared that Carl would never be able to support himself. From that day on, Jung decided to turn his attention towards academics. Prior to returning to his studies, Jung still suffered from fainting; but eventually, he was able to overcome his problem and go back to school. He never experienced this fainting problem again. Later in life, he recalled that this was the first time that he encountered neurosis. In 1895, Carl Jung attended the University of Basel to study medicine. One day, Jung discovered a book about spiritualistic phenomena. Jung became so intrigued with the subject and psychiatry that in the last months of his studies, he switched his attention from medicine to psychiatry. To him, psychiatry was the perfect combination of medicine and spirituality. In 1902, Jung finished his doctoral dissertation, “On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena,” and graduated with a medical degree. In 1903, Jung married Emma Rauschenbach and began working at the Burgholzli Psychiatric Hospital. Though he and his wife would remain married until she died in 1955, Jung did have affairs with other women, including a years-long relationship with his first patient from the Burgholzli Psychiatric Hospital. In 1906, Jung began his correspondence with Sigmund Freud. He sent Freud a collection of his work, entitled Studies in Word Association , and the two men soon became good friends. Jung’s friendship with Freud would have a profound impact on his work, especially on his interest in the unconscious mind. However, beginning in 1909, Jung began disagreeing with some of Freud’s ideas. While Freud placed an emphasis on sex as the motivation behind behavior, Jung became more interested in symbols, dreams, and self-analysis. By 1912, Jung and Freud’s friendship broke apart. Because Jung renounced Freud’s sex theory, the psychoanalytic community turned against Carl Jung, and he was cut off from several associates and friends. It is during this time that Jung devoted his time to exploring his subconscious and created analytic psychology. Jung believed every person’s purpose in life was to have his or her conscious and unconscious become fully integrated, so that they could become their “true self.” He called this “individuation.” Carl Jung also took an interest in what he referred to as “primitive psychology,” and studied different cultures found in India, East Africa, and the Pueblo Indians in New Mexico. On June 6th, 1961, Carl Jung died in Zurich. Doctoral Definitions Individuation: By listening to the messages found within our waking imagination and dreams, a person can understand, express, and harmonize the many parts of their unique psyche to reach their “true self.” According to Jung, within everyone’s unconscious are primordial images, which he called “archetypes,” that are reflections of universal themes and patterns. These primordial images are unlearned and act in a similar fashion to instincts, and help organize our experiences. ARCHETYPES Like Freud, Carl Jung believed the human psyche was made up of three parts, though his conception was somewhat different than Freud’s. Jung believed that the psyche could be divided into the ego, the collective unconscious, and the personal unconscious. Jung claimed the ego was a representation of the conscious mind, the collective unconscious contained experiences and information that we all share as a species—which he believed was a form of psychological inheritance—and the personal unconscious contained memories, both available and suppressed. Jung claimed that archetypes, or primordial images that reflect common patterns, exist in the collective unconscious and help organize how a person experiences particular things. These are not learned, but rather are hereditary, universal, and innate. Archetypes can combine and overlap, and while there is no limit to how many archetypes there may be, Jung recognized four of primary importance: 1. The Self: This archetype represents the union of the conscious and the unconscious, and this archetype is symbolic of a strive for unity and wholeness. This occurs through individuation, when every part of an individual’s personality is expressed equally and the individual has a more balanced psyche. The self is often represented in dreams as a circle, mandala, or square. 2. The Shadow: This archetype is comprised of instincts regarding life and sex, and is made up of weaknesses, desires, shortcomings, and repressed ideas. The shadow archetype is part of the unconscious mind, and can represent the unknown, chaos, and wildness. The shadow can appear in dreams as a snake, a dragon, a demon, or any other dark, exotic, or wild figure. 3. The Anima or Animus: In the male psyche, the anima is a feminine image, and in the female psyche, the animus is a male image. When the anima and the animus are combined, it is called a “syzygy.” Syzygy creates wholeness, and one obvious example of a syzygy is when two people have determined they are soul mates, thus combining the anima and the animus. Syzygy is also known as the divine couple, and represents wholeness, unification, and a feeling of completeness. For this reason, the anima and animus are representative of a person’s “true self,” and are a main source of communication with the collective unconscious. 4. The Persona: This is how a person presents him or herself to the world. The persona protects the ego from negative images, and can appear in dreams in many different forms. The persona is a representation of the many masks a person wears in situations and among different groups of people. Other archetypes Jung recognized include the father (representative of authority and power), the mother (representative of comfort and nurturing), the child (representative of a desire for innocence and salvation), and the wise old man (representative of wisdom, guidance, and knowledge). Carl Jung’s Relation to Alcoholics Anonymous In the early 1930s, a man known as Rowland H. met with Jung for help with his severe alcoholism. After several sessions of showing no improvement, Jung believed Rowland’s condition to be hopeless and declared that the only way for the man to find relief was through a spiritual experience. Jung suggested an evangelical Christian group known as the Oxford Group. Rowland took Jung’s advice and introduced another alcoholic, known as Ebby T., to the group. Ebby would become extremely successful with the Oxford Group and invite an old drinking buddy, known only as Bill W., to join the group. Eventually, Bill W. would have his own spiritual awakening, and he would go on to become one of the founders of Alcoholics Anonymous. In 1961, Bill W. wrote a letter to Carl Jung, thanking him. Carl Jung is considered the founder of analytical psychology, which approached psychoanalysis by understanding the unconscious and an individual’s desire to become whole. Jung’s ideas on extraversion, introversion, dreams, and symbols were extremely influential to psychotherapy and understanding personality psychology. HENRY MURRAY (1893–1988) Personality traits Henry Murray was born on May 13th, 1893, in New York, New York, to a wealthy family. In 1915, Murray graduated from Harvard University with a degree in history. He then attended Columbia University’s College of Physicians and Surgeons where he received an MD in biology. It was at Columbia that Murray first began taking an interest in psychology. Murray was fascinated with the work of Carl Jung; and in 1925, Murray met with Jung in Zurich. Murray recalled that the two men talked for hours, went sailing, and smoked, and that this meeting actually led him to experience his unconscious. It was from his meeting with Jung that Murray decided to formally pursue a career in psychology. Henry Murray soon became an instructor at the Harvard Psychological Clinic at the request of Morton Prince, its founder. By 1937, Murray was named director of the clinic. With his extensive medical background and analytical training, Murray brought a unique twist to the work he was doing, which focused on personality and the unconscious. In 1938, Henry Murray left Harvard to help with the war effort, and was even asked to create a psychological profile of Adolf Hitler. That same year, Murray created the now-famous Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a test that set out to determine unconscious motivation and personality themes. During World War II, Murray created and directed the Office of Strategic Services, which assessed the psychological fitness of agents within the American intelligence agencies. Murray returned to Harvard University in 1947, and in 1949, he helped create the Psychological Clinic Annex. Murray became an emeritus professor at Harvard University in 1962. On June 23rd, 1988, Henry Murray died of pneumonia. He was ninety-five years old. MURRAY’S THEORY OF PSYCHOGENIC NEEDS In 1938, Henry Murray came up with his theory of psychogenic needs. This theory describes personality as being the result of basic needs that are found mostly at the unconscious level. The two most basic types of needs are: 1. Primary needs: Biological needs like food, water, and oxygen. 2. Secondary needs: Psychological needs including the need to achieve, be nurtured, or be independent. Furthermore, Murray and his colleagues identified twenty-seven needs that he claimed all people had (though each person has different levels of each need). The needs are: Abasement: The need to accept punishment and surrender Achievement: The need to succeed and be able to overcome obstacles Acquisition or Conservance: The need to attain possessions Affiliation: The need to make friendships and relations Aggression: The need to harm others Autonomy: The need to remain strong and resist others Blame avoidance: The need to obey rules and avoid blame Construction: The need to create and build Contrariance: The need to be unique Counteraction: The need to defend one’s honor Defendance: The need to justify one’s actions Deference: The need to serve or follow someone who is one’s superior Dominance or Power: The need to lead other people and control Exhibition: The need to draw attention Exposition: The need to educate and give information Harm avoidance: The need to avoid pain Infavoidance: The need to hide weaknesses and avoid shame or failure Nurturance: The need to protect those that are helpless Order: The need to organize, arrange, and be particular Play: The need to have fun, relax, and relieve tension or stress Recognition: The need to gain social status and approval by displaying one’s achievements Rejection: The need to reject others Sentience: The need to enjoy sensuous experiences Sex or Erotic: The need to create and enjoy an erotic relationship Similance: The need to empathize with others Succorance: The need to obtain sympathy or protection Understanding or Cognizance: The need to ask questions, seek knowledge, analyze, and experience Murray believed that each individual need was important, but that needs could also be interrelated, could support other needs, or could be in conflict with various other needs. According to Murray, the way these needs are displayed in our behavior is, in part, due to environmental factors, which Murray referred to as “presses.” THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST Murray’s Thematic Apperception Test attempts to tap into the patient’s unconscious, evaluate patterns of thought, and reveal personality and emotional responses by showing a person various ambiguous, but provocative, pictures and having them tell a story about what they see in the picture. The basic outline of the test is as follows: 1. Have the participant look at the following picture for a few moments. 2. Based on the picture, instruct the participant to narrate a story and include: • What led to the event you see in this picture? • What is happening at this exact moment? • What are the characters in the picture thinking and feeling? • What is the outcome of this story? The actual test involves thirty-one pictures that feature men, women, children, figures of ambiguous gender, nonhuman figures, and one completely blank image. The stories are recorded and then analyzed for underlying attitudes, needs, and patterns of reaction. Two commonly used formal scoring methods include the Defense Mechanisms Manual (otherwise known as DMM), which assesses denial, projection, and identification; and the Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale (otherwise known as SCORS), which analyzes different dimensions of the psyche in its environment. MURRAY’S ANALYSIS OF ADOLF HITLER In 1943, Murray was commissioned by the Allied Forces to help them understand the psychological makeup of Adolf Hitler. Murray concluded that Hitler’s personality type was one that held grudges, had the tendency to belittle, blame, and bully, did not have a high tolerance of criticism, could not take a joke, could not express gratitude, sought revenge, and was in high demand for attention. Murray also stated Hitler lacked qualities of a balanced personality and that he had an extremely strong self-trust and self-will. Lastly, Murray correctly guessed that should Germany lose the war, Hitler would kill himself in a very dramatic way; and as a result, Murray feared that Hitler would become a martyr in the process. Henry Murray’s work in psychogenic needs and understanding of personality was extremely important because he not only emphasized the unconscious, but also biological factors. His Thematic Apperception Test is still used to this day. LEFT AND RIGHT BRAIN Thinking from your side The left and right sides of the brain have specific functions and are responsible for different types of thinking. Most interestingly, these two sides of the brain have the ability to operate practically independently of each other. In psychology, this is referred to as the lateralization of brain function. In the early 1960s, psychobiologist Roger Sperry began conducting experiments on epileptic patients. Sperry discovered that by cutting the structure responsible for connecting and communicating between the left and right hemispheres of the brain, known as the corpus callosum, seizures could be reduced and even eliminated. Once the corpus callosum was cut, the patients—who originally appeared normal—began experiencing other strange symptoms. Many patients found that they could name objects that had been processed by the left hemisphere of the brain, but could no longer name objects that were processed by the right hemisphere. From this, Sperry deduced that the left hemisphere of the brain was responsible for controlling language. Other patients struggled with the ability to put blocks together in a prearranged way. Sperry was able to successfully show that the left and right hemispheres of the brain were responsible for different functions, and that each hemisphere also had the ability to learn. In 1981, Roger Sperry was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work in brain lateralization. LEFT BRAIN AND RIGHT BRAIN DIVISION RIGHT BRAIN DOMINANCE The right hemisphere of the brain, which is responsible for the left side of the body, is more capable in tasks that are expressive and creative—also known as visual construction tasks. These include tasks such as expressing and reading emotions, understanding metaphors, discriminating shapes (like picking out an object that is camouflaged), copying designs, and making music. LEFT BRAIN DOMINANCE The left hemisphere of the brain, which is responsible for the right side of the body, is more capable at tasks such as language, critical thinking, logic, reasoning, and the use of numbers. DETAILED EXAMPLE OF LEFT AND RIGHT BRAIN SPLIT THE SPLIT-BRAIN EXPERIMENTS In Roger Sperry’s split-brain experiments, Sperry had a split-brain patient (someone with a cut corpus callosum) sit in front of a screen that would hide his or her hands. Behind this screen, Sperry placed objects that the split-brain patient could not see. The patient would then focus their eyes to the center of the screen and a word would appear on the screen in the patient’s left visual field. This information was then received by the right hemisphere of the brain (the nonverbal part). The result was that the patient was actually unable to tell Sperry the word that he or she had seen. Sperry would then ask the patient to use their left hand to reach behind the screen and choose the object that corresponded with the word. Even though the patient was not aware of even seeing a word, the patient was able to choose the correct object. This is because the right hemisphere controls the movement of the left side of the body. Through this experiment, Roger Sperry was able to successfully show that the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for controlling reading and speech, and that the right hemisphere of the brain does not have the ability to process verbal stimuli. VISUALIZATION OF THE SPLIT BRAIN EXPERIMENT So I Know My Dominant Side … Now What? Understanding which hemisphere you are more dominant in can actually be incredibly useful when it comes to thinking of better ways to approach studying or learning. For example, if you are more dominant with your right hemisphere, you may have a harder time following verbal instructions, and might benefit from improving your organizational skills or writing directions down. LOVE Listening to your heart Love may be one of the most complex human emotions, but also possibly the most central too. There are many different theories regarding love, and while psychologists agree that love is a central human emotion, they are still unsure exactly why it happens, or how. At present, there are four primary theories that attempt to explain love, emotional attachment, and liking. RUBIN’S SCALES OF LIKING AND LOVING Psychologist Zick Rubin was one of the first people to create a method of empirically measuring love. Rubin believed that romantic love was composed of three elements: attachment, caring, and intimacy. Attachment: The need to be with another person and be cared for. Important components of attachment include approval and physical contact. Caring: Valuing the happiness and needs of the other person just as much as you value your own. Intimacy: Communicating your private desires, feelings, and beliefs. Rubin then created two questionnaires that would be able to measure these elements. According to Rubin, the difference between liking someone and loving someone can be seen in how we evaluate the other person. Rubin’s questions were then created to measure feelings of liking another person and feelings of loving another person, and then these results were compared. When Rubin gave the questionnaire to a group of participants, he told them to base their answers on how they felt about a good friend and how they felt about their significant other. He found that, while the scores about the good friends were high on the liking scale, only the scores regarding significant others rated high on the loving scale. Thus, Rubin was able to successfully measure feelings of love. ELAINE HATFIELD’S PASSIONATE AND COMPASSIONATE LOVE Psychologist Elaine Hatfield claimed that there were only two forms of love: passionate and compassionate love. Passionate love: Feelings of intense sexual arousal, attraction, affection, emotion, and a strong urge to be with one another. Passionate love tends to be short-lived, lasting from six to thirty months, but can lead to compassionate love. Compassionate love: Feelings of attachment, respect, trust, affection, and commitment. Compassionate love lasts longer than passionate love. Hatfield also differentiated between reciprocated love, which leads to feelings of elation and fulfillment, and unreciprocated love, which leads to feelings of desperation and despair. She believed there were certain key factors that had to exist for compassionate and passionate love to occur. These include: Timing: When an individual is ready to fall and be in love. Similarity: A person has the tendency to fall passionately in love with an individual that is similar to him or herself. Early attachment styles: Long-term and deeper relationships are often the result of people who are strongly attached to one another, while people who fall in and out of love often generally do not have a strong attachment or connection. JOHN LEE’S SIX STYLES OF LOVE John Lee believed the different styles of love were similar to the rules of a color wheel. Much like the way a color wheel features three primary colors, Lee believed that love could be broken down into three basic primary styles. These are: Eros: Loving the ideal of a person both physically and emotionally. Ludos: A type of love that is played like a game or conquest (and might result in many partners at one time). Storge: Love that stems from a friendship over time. Just like the primary colors of a color wheel can be combined and create complimentary colors, so too can the primary love styles. The result is three secondary styles of love: Mania: A combination of Eros and Ludos, Mania is a style of love that is obsessive. This includes emotional highs and lows, jealousy, and very possessive feelings. Pragma: A combination of Ludos and Storge, Pragma is a love that is practical. Lovers go into the situation with the hopes of reaching their final goal. Expectations of the relationship are thought about practically and realistically. Agape: A combination of Eros and Storge, Agape is a love that is all-encompassing and selfless. ROBERT STERNBERG’S TRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE In this 2004 theory, Robert Sternberg proposed that love could be broken down into three parts: intimacy, passion, and commitment. Intimacy: Closeness, supporting one another, sharing with one another, and feeling loved. Passion: Feelings of sexual arousal and attraction, and euphoria. This is what drives two individuals together. Commitment: The desire to remain loyal to another person and stay in a long-term relationship. From these three components, seven different combinations can be created. The easiest way to understand this is by looking at it as a triangle. In the triangle, intimacy, passion, and commitment are the vertices, and the seven combinations are the connections between these vertices. Alternatively, here is another way to look at it: VISUALIZATION OF STERNBERG’S THEORY OF LOVE Liking or Friendship: This represents a friendship where there is closeness and a strong bond, but there is not any passion or commitment present. Infatuation or Limerance: This is what a person feels when he or she experiences “love at first sight.” Because there is no commitment or intimacy, infatuation can be fleeting. Empty Love: This is when a love has lost intimacy and passion, but there is still a strong commitment between the two people. Romantic Love: Romantic love features intimacy and passion, meaning there is sexual arousal and an emotional bond, but there is a lack of commitment. Companionate Love: This is a type of love where passion does not exist or no longer exists, but there is still a great commitment and deep affection for one another. This type of love is found among family members, close friends, and can even be found in marriages. Fatuous Love: This is a type of love that only features passion and commitment, but lacks intimacy. An example of fatuous love is a brief or impulsive marriage. Consummate Love: This is the ideal form of love, and it features intimacy, passion, and commitment. Sternberg claimed that once consummate love was achieved, it would be even harder to maintain and that it may not be permanent. If, for example, passion becomes lost with the passage of time, then the consummate love would turn into companionate love. During the lifespan of a relationship, Sternberg believed that the balance between intimacy, passion, and commitment would shift. Understanding the three components of love and the seven types can help couples recognize what they need to improve upon, what they should avoid, and even when it might be time to end the relationship. KAREN HORNEY (1885–1952) Women, neuroses, and breaking away from Freud Karen Horney (née Karen Danielsen) was born on September 16th, 1885, in the fishing village of Blankenese, Germany. Horney’s father, a ship captain, was a strict and very religious man who often ignored Horney and seemed to like her brother, Berndt, more than her. At the age of nine, Karen developed a crush on her older brother, Berndt. When he rejected her feelings, Karen fell into a depression, which she would battle throughout her life. Karen saw herself as an unattractive girl and believed that doing well in school would be the best option for her to succeed in life. In 1906, at the age of twenty-one, Karen attended medical school at the University of Freiburg Medical School. Three years later, Karen would marry a law student by the name of Oscar Horney; and from 1910 to 1916, they would have three children together. Horney transferred first to the University of Gottingen, before finally graduating from the University of Berlin in 1913. Within a single year, Horney’s parents died and she had her first child. To cope with her emotions, she began seeing Karl Abraham, a psychoanalyst who was a disciple of Freud. Abraham would eventually become Horney’s mentor at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society. In 1920, Horney began working as a lecturer for the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society. In 1923, Horney’s brother died. Her brother’s death was extremely difficult for Horney and she fell into another bout of depression. In 1926, Horney separated from her husband; and in 1930, she and her three daughters moved to the United States, where they ended up residing in a Jewish German part of Brooklyn, New York. It was while living here that Horney became friends with famous psychologists like Erich Fromm and Harry Stack Sullivan. Horney soon became the Associate Director of the Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis, where she first began working on her most influential work: her theories on neuroses and personality. Two years later, Horney returned to New York and worked at both the New York Psychoanalytic Institute and the New School for Social Research. Though Horney had begun disputing the work of Sigmund Freud while still living in Germany, when she came to the States, her opposition towards Freud’s work grew so much that, in 1941, she was forced to resign from the New York Psychoanalytic Institute. Horney then went on to establish the American Institute for Psychoanalysis that same year. Horney published her books, The Neurotic Personality of Our Time in 1937, and Self-Analysis in 1942. Karen Horney is perhaps most known for her work on the subject of neuroses, for disagreeing and breaking away from Sigmund Freud’s views on women, and for sparking an interest in the psychology of women. Horney was also a firm believer that the individual had the ability to be his or her own therapist, and emphasized the significance of self-help and self-analysis. Karen Horney died of cancer on December 4th, 1952. She was sixty-seven years old. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN Karen Horney never studied under Sigmund Freud, but she was incredibly familiar with his work and even taught psychoanalysis at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute and the New York Psychoanalytic Institute, where her views on his work eventually led to her departure from the school. You may recall in Sigmund Freud’s stages of psychosexual development that at the phallic stage—ages three to six—Freud claimed that the relationship between young girls and their fathers was the result of penis envy. Horney disagreed with Freud’s notion of penis envy and viewed it as demeaning and incorrect. Rather, she claimed that at this stage, something she referred to as “womb envy” occurs—the man’s envy that a woman can bear children. As a result, the male tries to compensate for his feelings of inferiority by attempting to succeed in other ways. In other words, because the male cannot reproduce, he tries to leave his mark on the world in some alternative aspect. Horney also argued that Freud was wrong in his belief that males and females had fundamental differences in their personalities. While Freud took a biological approach, Horney claimed that without the cultural and societal restrictions that are often placed on women, men and women would be equal. This idea was not accepted at the time; however, it later resonated, after Horney’s death, in helping promote gender equality. KAREN HORNEY’S THEORY OF NEUROSES Karen Horney’s theory of neuroses is one of the best-known theories on the topic. She believed that interpersonal relationships created basic anxiety, and that neuroses developed as a method to deal with these relationships. Horney identified three categories that neurotic needs could be classified under. If an individual is well-adjusted, he or she will be able to apply all three strategies. A person only becomes neurotic when one or more of these are overused. The categories are: Needs that move an individual towards other people These are neurotic needs that will make an individual seek out the acceptance, help, or affirmation from others in order to feel worthy. These type of people need to be appreciated and liked by those around them, and may come off as clingy or needy. Needs that move an individual against other people In an effort to feel good about themselves, people will deal with their anxiety by trying to force their power onto other people and control those around them. People that express these needs are seen as unkind, selfish, bossy, and controlling. Horney stated that people would project their hostilities onto others in a process she referred to as externalization. The individual would then be able to use this as a justification for his or her sometimes cruel behavior. Needs that move an individual away from other people These neurotic needs are responsible for antisocial behavior, and a person may appear indifferent to other people. The mentality behind this approach is if an individual does not get involved with other people, then other people cannot then hurt the individual. This can lead to feelings of emptiness and loneliness. Horney then identified ten neurotic needs within these categories: • Moving Towards Other People 1. The need for affection and approval: This is the desire to meet other people’s expectations, make others happy, and be liked. Those that experience this need are afraid of hostility or anger from other people, and are very sensitive to any rejection or criticism. 2. An individual’s need for a partner that will control his or her life: This need involves a strong fear of being abandoned, and the belief that having a partner in one’s life can resolve any trouble or problems that he or she may be having. • Moving Against Other People 1. The need to have power: Individuals with this need control and dominate others because they hate weakness but admire, and are desperate for, strength. 2. The need to exploit other people: Individuals with this need are manipulative and believe people exist to be used. Associations with other people are only used to attain things such as control, sex, or money. 3. The need for prestige: These are individuals that need acclaim and public recognition. Social status, material possessions, professional accomplishments, personality traits, and even loved ones are judged based on prestige, and there is a fear of public embarrassment. 4. The need for personal achievement: Pushing oneself to achieve is perfectly normal. However, neurotic individuals may become desperate to achieve, and push themselves as a result of their own insecurities. There is a fear of failure, and the need to always accomplish more than others. 5. The need for personal admiration: These are individuals that are narcissistic and wish to be viewed based off of an ideal version of themselve, instead of who they actually are. • Moving Away from Other People 1. The need for perfection: An individual with this need will commonly be in fear of personal flaws, and will search for these flaws so that he or she can quickly conceal or change them. 2. The need for independence: In an effort to not depend on, or be tied down to, other people, an individual exhibiting this need might distance him or herself from others. This creates a “loner” mentality. 3. The need to limit one’s life so that it remains within narrow borders: The preference for individuals with this need is to go unnoticed and remain inconspicuous. These individuals will often undervalue their own skills and talents, will not demand much, will not desire material objects, are content with very little, and regard their own needs as secondary. Karen Horney was incredibly influential to the world of psychology. Her views on neuroses as a way to deal with interpersonal relationships and her identification of neurotic needs were truly groundbreaking, and by breaking away from the male- dominant views set forth by Sigmund Freud, Horney established herself as a strong voice for women and female psychology. JOHN BOWLBY (1907 -1990) The father of the theory of motherly love John Bowlby was born in London, England, on February 26th, 1907, to an upper-middle class family. Bowlby’s father, Sir Anthony Alfred Bowlby, was a Baronet and worked as a member of the King’s medical staff. Bowlby only interacted with his mother for about an hour each day, as was customary for that social class during this period. At the time, it was commonly believed that showing one’s child affection and care would lead to spoiling. As one of six children, Bowlby became very close with his nanny instead. At the age of four, Bowlby’s nanny left, and he experienced such a deep sadness that he compared it to losing a mother. When Bowlby was seven years old, his family sent him to a boarding school. Bowlby would later recall this event as being quite traumatic to his development. This experience, however, would prove to have a large and lasting impact on Bowlby, whose work in psychology focused on how a child’s development is affected when he or she is separated from their caregiver. Bowlby attended Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied psychology; and following graduation, he began working with delinquent and maladjusted children. At the age of twenty-two, Bowlby began attending the University College Hospital in London, where he studied medicine. While he was a student in medical school, Bowlby enrolled in the Institute for Psychoanalysis. By 1937, Bowlby was working as a psychoanalyst at the Maudsley Hospital. When World War II came around, Bowlby served as a member of the Royal Army Medical Corps. In 1938, Bowlby married Ursula Longstaff, with whom he would have four children. When the war ended, he became the Deputy Director of the Tavistock Clinic in London. During the 1950s, Bowlby briefly worked as a mental health consultant for the World Health Organization, where he would create some of his most influential work, like his attachment theory. Today, John Bowlby is most well-known for his wide-ranging work in child development. In particular, drawing from examples throughout his own life history, Bowlby focused on how separation from a child’s caregiver affects the development of a child and the practical applications of what that separation means for the growing youth. John Bowlby died on September 2nd, 1990. He was eighty-three years old. BOWLBY’S ATTACHMENT THEORY John Bowlby is considered to be the first attachment theorist, generally defined as a psychologist who considers how early attachments shape peoples’ lives. According to Bowlby, attachment is the psychological bond between any two people. Bowlby believed that in order to survive, children are preprogrammed to create attachments. Furthermore, the earliest bonds that form are those between child and caregiver, and these can leave a lasting impact on the rest of an individual’s life. Attachment is responsible for improving the chance of survival for a child because it is the psychological force that keeps a child close to his or her mother. ILLUSTRATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL BONDS In his attachment theory, John Bowlby claimed that a child will possess the sense of security that allows for exploration only when the child’s mother has been available and responsive. In Bowlby’s conception, there are four characteristics to attachment: 1. Safe Haven: If a child ever feels scared, threatened, or in danger, the caregiver comforts, supports, and soothes the child. 2. Secure Base: The caregiver provides the child with a secure foundation so that the child can learn, explore the world, and sort things out on his or her own. 3. Proximity Maintenance: Even though the child can explore the world, he or she still tries to stay close to the caregiver to stay safe. 4. Separation Distress: The child becomes upset, unhappy, and distressed when separated from his or her caregiver. Only one primary attachment is formed with babies, most commonly with the mother, and it occurs within the child’s first year (this is known as monotropy). If this type of bond does not occur or breaks down, it can have serious consequences on the child, and even lead to affectionless psychopathy. If attachment is not present by the time the child is three years old, then the child will never have it. Furthermore: Attachment from the caregiver must be secure in order to create positive social, intellectual, and emotional development. If attachment has been formed and is then interrupted, there will be serious consequences to the child’s social, intellectual, and emotional development. The critical period for a baby to be with his or her caregiver is between six and twenty-four months. Doctoral Definitions Maternal deprivation: The term Bowlby used to describe the developmental impairment caused by a child being separated from his or her mother. Long-term consequences of maternal deprivation include diminished intelligence, depression, heightened aggression, delinquency, and affectionless psychopathy (a lack of remorse, the inability to have emotional relationships, a lack of impulse control, and chronic anger). BOWLBY’S FORTY-FOUR THIEVES STUDY To test how important to socialization the relationship between a mother and her child is during the first five years, Bowlby conducted an experiment with forty-four adolescent juvenile delinquents. Bowlby believed that a higher rate of juvenile delinquency, antisocial conduct, and emotional difficulties could be directly linked to a disruption of this important attachment. Essentially, Bowlby set out to see if maternal deprivation could be linked to adolescent delinquency. Interviews were held with forty-four adolescent juvenile delinquents. These adolescent juvenile delinquents were all placed in a child guidance clinic because of stealing. Bowlby also used forty-four other adolescents from the clinic as a control. It should be noted that these adolescents were actually determined to be emotionally disturbed, but had never stolen. Bowlby then interviewed the parents of the adolescent juvenile delinquents and the control group, looking to see if the children had ever experienced separation from their parents in their first five years of development, and how long the separation lasted. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN BOWLBY’S STUDY Bowlby found that, during the first five years, more than half of the juvenile delinquent thieves were separated from their mothers for periods of time greater than six months; and in the control group, only two adolescents had experienced a similar separation. While Bowlby found that no adolescent in the control group showed affectionless psychopathy, he said 32 percent of the juvenile delinquent thieves did show affectionless psychopathy. From this research, Bowlby came to the conclusion that there is a correlation between adolescent criminal behavior and maternal deprivation as a child. Of course, Bowlby’s findings in this study can be disputed. Not only does the experiment rely on interviews and memories, which have the possibility of being inaccurate, but there may also be experimenter bias because Bowlby designed and conducted his experiment, and determined what the diagnosis of affectionless psychopathy was. By drawing upon his own life experiences, John Bowlby created a completely new field of study within psychology, and the impact of his work can still be found in education, parenting, and childcare. ATTRIBUTION THEORY Giving meaning to everything we do The way in which a person attaches meaning to their behavior and to the behavior of others can be explained by attribution theory. In other words, how do we explain the events we are seeing and why do we do it? Essentially, attribution theory states that people explain the behavior of themselves and those around them by assigning attributes to this behavior. Doctoral Definitions ATTRIBUTE: An inference about what causes a particular behavior. FRITZ HEIDER A theory involving attribution was first proposed by Austrian psychologist Fritz Heider in 1958. Heider called it naïve psychology or “common sense,” and thought that in order to make sense of the world, people seek to find cause-and-effect relationships. His two main ideas about attribution were: 1. People look for internal attributions, like personality traits, mood, and attitudes, to explain the behavior of other people. For example, an individual might attribute jealousy to another person. 2. People make external attributions, like environmental or situational, to explain their own behavior. EDWARD JONES AND KEITH DAVIS In 1965, psychologists Edward Jones and Keith Davis created the correspondent inference theory. This theory helps explain the process of creating an internal attribution. Jones and Davis believed that a person will pay particular attention to a behavior that is intentional—Jones and Davis called it “dispositional attribution”—and that these internal attributions provide us with enough information so that we can predict the individual’s behavior in the future. For example, a person may make a connection between seeing someone act in a friendly manner and believing that individual to be a friendly person. This process of inferring that an individual’s behavior corresponds with the personality of the individual is known as correspondent inference. Jones and Davis identified five sources that they believed led a person to make a correspondent inference: 1. Choice: Behavior that is freely chosen is the result of internal factors. 2. Social Desirability: When a behavior is nonconforming, a person will make internal inferences more than they will make behaviors that are socially undesirable. 3. Intentional vs. Accidental Behavior: When a behavior is intentional, this means it is most likely attributed to the personality of the person, and when a behavior is accidental, it is most likely attributed to external or situational causes. 4. Noncommon Effects: If the behavior of another person leads to important results for yourself. 5. Hedonistic Relevance: If the behavior of another person seems to be directly intended to help or hurt you, it can be assumed that it is not simply a byproduct of the situation or event you and the other person are in, and that it is “personal.” HAROLD KELLEY The most well-known attribution theory is Harold Kelley’s covariation model of 1967. Kelley created a logical model to understand when an action could be an external attribution and when it could be an internal model. Doctoral Definitions COVARIATION: When an individual has information from many observations that occur in different situations and at different times. Kelley stated there are three types of causal information that influence an individual’s judgment and that these are taken into account when a person tries to figure out the cause of particular behaviors. When there is a low factor (behaviors do not conform and are low in desirability by others), this means it is an internal attribution. 1. Consistency: The degree to which a person acts a particular way every time a similar situation occurs. For example, if someone only smokes cigarettes when he or she is out with his or her friends, there is a high consistency in behavior. If, however, a person only smokes cigarettes every now and then for a special occasion, there is a low consistency in behavior. 2. Consensus: The degree to which other people will act in a similar way when a similar situation occurs. For example, if one person smokes while drinking with a friend and his or her friend also smokes, then the behavior is high in consensus. If only the first person smokes, and the friend does not join in on the activity, then the behavior is low in consensus. 3. Distinctiveness: The degree to which an individual acts the same way in similar situations. If an individual only smokes cigarettes when he or she is with friends, then the behavior is high in distinctiveness, and if an individual will smoke at any time in any place, then the behavior is low in distinctiveness. BERNARD WEINER Bernard Weiner’s theory on attribution placed emphasis on achievement. Weiner stated that the most significant factors that affect attributions are effort, ability, luck, and the difficulty of the task. He classified attributions in three causal dimensions: 1. Stability and instability: Will the causes of the behavior change as time passes? 2. Locus of control: Internal vs. External. An internal locus of control is when an individual decides what to do on their own, while an external locus of control is when behavior is influenced by situational and external factors. 3. Controllability: Causes that an individual has the ability to control, like their own skill set, versus causes that an individual does not have the ability to control, like luck or the actions of other people. Weiner suggests that when an individual is successful, he or she tends to attribute his or her success internally to his or her skill set, but when someone else is successful, success is attributed externally to luck or circumstance. When an individual fails or is not successful, external attribution is commonly used, and instead of blaming him or herself, the cause will be attributed to situational or external factors. This is known as the self-serving bias. When other people are not successful or fail, however, an individual will commonly use internal attribution, believing it to be the result of internal factors. ATTRIBUTIONAL BIASES AND ERRORS Like the self-serving bias, there are several more examples of attributional biases and errors that people will commonly default to as they try to find a reason for behavior. Fundamental Attribution Error This is the tendency to underestimate external factors and overestimate internal factors when trying to explain the behavior of another individual. This is common when we don’t know a person very well, or it may happen because of our tendency to focus more on the situation instead of the individual. For example, a student does not hand in an assignment and the teacher assumes this is because the student is lazy, without considering the student’s situation. Culture Bias The people in North America and Western Europe tend to be more of an individualist culture, where individual values and goals are embraced, while the people in Latin America, Asia, and Africa tend to have more collectivist cultures, where family and conformity is embraced. People from individualist cultures will often make fundamental attribution errors and self-serving biases more than people from collectivist cultures; and people from collectivist cultures will often make self-effacing biases—the opposite of a self- serving bias, where success is attributed to external factors and failure is attributed to internal factors—more than people from individualist cultures. Actor/Observer Difference Even if an individual is in the same situation as another person, attribution can change depending on whether the person is the actor or the observer in the situation. For example, someone might justify doing poorly on a test by saying the teacher never went over the subject matter of a question. However, if others in the class did poorly and that individual did well, the individual might claim that it was because the rest of the class just didn’t pay attention. EMOTION Why we feel the way we do What exactly is emotion? In psychology, emotion is defined as a state of feeling that involves physiological and psychological changes that then influence the way a person thinks and behaves. There are three main categories that theories of emotion can be classified into: Neurological, which are based on the notion that brain activity will lead to an emotional response. Physiological, which are based on the notion that responses from the body are what create emotions. Cognitive, which are based on the notion that thinking and mental activity are responsible for emotions. Some of the primary theories that psychologists have developed regarding emotion include: THE JAMES-LANGE THEORY The James-Lange theory, which was actually proposed independently by physiologist Carl Lange and psychologist William James in the 1920s, is one of the best-known theories on emotions. This theory suggests that all emotions are the result of a physiological reaction to events. The James-Lange theory can be broken down as follows: PROGRESSION OF EMOTION AS PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS If an individual witnesses an external stimulus, the result is a physiological reaction. From this physiological reaction comes a feeling of emotion, otherwise known as an emotional reaction, based on how the physical reaction has been interpreted. For example, if you are walking along a path and you suddenly see a mountain lion facing you, your heart may begin to pound and your body may begin to tremble. According to the James-Lange theory, you will then interpret this physical reaction and reach the conclusion that you are scared. There are many solid arguments that disprove the James-Lange theory, and it has mostly been abandoned by modern science. Psychologists, however, do still consider the James-Lange theory to be very influential; and there are even examples where this theory holds true, such as what happens to a person when he or she develops a phobia or panic disorder. If an individual experiences a physiological reaction, like getting sick in public, it can lead to an emotional reaction, like getting anxious, and an association can form between the two states. The person may then attempt to avoid any type of situation that would result in that emotion being triggered. THE CANNON-BARD THEORY Created by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard as an argument against the James-Lange theory in the 1930s, the Cannon-Bard theory states physiological reactions and emotions are experienced simultaneously. According to the theory, emotions occur when the thalamus—the portion of the brain that is responsible for motor control, awake and sleep states, and sensory signals—sends the brain a message as a response to a particular stimulus. The result from this message being transmitted is a physiological reaction. To break it down further, consider the following diagram: EVENTS TRIGGERING AROUSAL AND EMOTION There is an original emotional stimulus that is taken in by sensory organs. The stimulus is then transmitted to the cortex to determine how the response will be directed, which in turn stimulates the thalamus. In other words, the stimulus is being perceived and interpreted. Then, two reactions occur simultaneously: the emotional reaction and the bodily reaction. Returning to the earlier example, if you are walking along a path and see a mountain lion, you will experience the trembling and heart pounding simultaneously with the emotion of fear. THE SCHACHTER-SINGER THEORY The Schachter-Singer theory, created by Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer in 1962, is an example of a cognitive theory. According to the Schachter-Singer Theory, which is also known as the two-factor theory, physiological arousal from an event is the first stage that occurs. Following the physiological arousal, an individual must then find the reason for why this arousal occurred, and it is only after this happens that the individual can characterize the experience and label it an emotion. For example, when a woman is walking down an empty street late at night and suddenly hears footsteps behind her, she may start trembling and her heart rate may begin to increase. As the woman notices her physical response, she will come to the realization that she is by herself on the street. She will then begin to believe that she is in danger and experience the emotion of fear. ALTERNATIVE VIEW OF EMOTIONAL RESPONSE LAZARUS THEORY Developed by Richard Lazarus in the 1990s, Lazarus’s theory on emotion claims that before an emotion or physiological arousal can take place, a thought must occur first. Essentially, you have to consider the situation that you are in before any type of emotion can be experienced. Take the example of walking down the empty street late at night. When a woman hears footsteps while walking down the street, the thought that she is in danger will occur first—for example, the thought that there is a mugger behind her—and as a result, her heart rate increases, her body begins trembling, and the emotion of fear is experienced. Like the Cannon-Bard theory, the Lazarus theory involves emotion and physiological arousal occurring at the same time. CONCURRENT EMOTION AND AROUSAL FACIAL FEEDBACK THEORY The origins of the facial feedback theory can be linked to the work of William James, and was further explored by Silvan Tomkins in 1962. This theory claims that emotion is actually the experience of facial muscle changes that occur. Otherwise, according to the theory, we are just thinking intellectually. So when a person smiles, it means that he or she is experiencing happiness, and when a person frowns, it means that he or she is experiencing sadness, and so on. These changes in our facial muscles are what prompt the brain into specifying a basis for emotion, instead of the other way around. Once again, let’s look at the scenario with the woman walking alone on a street at night. When she hears the footsteps coming from behind, her eyes will widen and her teeth will clench. The brain then interprets these changes in the facial muscles as expressing the emotion of fear, and therefore, the brain tells the woman that she is experiencing fear. FACIAL CHANGES TRIGGERING EMOTION Carney Landis’s Facial Expressions Study In 1924, a psychology graduate student at the University of Minnesota by the name of Carney Landis created an experiment to understand the relationship between facial expressions and emotions. Landis wanted to see if people shared universal facial expressions when certain emotions were evoked. For example, is the facial expression someone has for disgust the same as everyone else? For his experiment, Landis used mostly fellow graduate students. Once inside of the lab, Landis painted black lines on the faces of the subjects so that he could easily follow any muscle movement. Each Yüklə 1,8 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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