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water, so pants his soul after money, the only wealth.
50
In a crisis, the antithesis between
commodities and their value-form, money, becomes heightened into an absolute contradiction.
Hence, in such events, the form under which money appears is of no importance. The money
famine continues, whether payments have to be made in gold or in credit money such as bank-
notes.
51
If we now consider the sum total of the money current during a given period, we shall find that,
given the rapidity of currency of the circulating medium and of the means of payment, it is equal
to the sum of the prices to be realised, plus the sum of the payments falling due, minus the
payments that balance each other, minus finally the number of circuits in which the same piece of
coin serves in turn as means of circulation and of payment. Hence, even when prices, rapidity of
currency, and the extent of the economy in payments, are given, the quantity of money current
and the mass of commodities circulating during a given period, such as a day, no longer
correspond. Money that represents commodities long withdrawn from circulation, continues to be
current. Commodities circulate, whose equivalent in money will not appear on the scene till some
future day. Moreover, the debts contracted each day, and the payments falling due on the same
day, are quite incommensurable quantities.
52
Credit-money springs directly out of the function of money as a means of payment. Certificates of
the debts owing for the purchased commodities circulate for the purpose of transferring those
debts to others. On the other hand, to the same extent as the system of credit is extended, so is the
function of money as a means of payment. In that character it takes various forms peculiar to
itself under which it makes itself at home in the sphere of great commercial transactions. Gold
and silver coin, on the other hand, are mostly relegated to the sphere of retail trade.
53
When the production of commodities has sufficiently extended itself, money begins to serve as
the means of payment beyond the sphere of the circulation of commodities. It becomes the
commodity that is the universal subject-matter of all contracts.
54
Rents, taxes, and such like
payments are transformed from payments in kind into money payments. To what extent this
transformation depends upon the general conditions of production, is shown, to take one example,
by the fact that the Roman Empire twice failed in its attempt to levy all contributions in money.
The unspeakable misery of the French agricultural population under Louis XIV., a misery so
eloquently denounced by Boisguillebert, Marshal Vauban, and others, was due not only to the
weight of the taxes, but also to the conversion of taxes in kind into money taxes.
55
In Asia, on the
other hand, the fact that state taxes are chiefly composed of rents payable in kind,
depends on
conditions of production that are reproduced with the regularity of natural phenomena. And this
mode of payment tends in its turn to maintain the ancient form of production. It is one of the
secrets of the conservation of the Ottoman Empire. If the foreign trade, forced upon Japan by
Europeans, should lead to the substitution of money rents for rents in kind, it will be all up with
the exemplary agriculture of that country. The narrow economic conditions under which that
agriculture is carried on, will be swept away.
In every country, certain days of the year become by habit recognised settling days for various
large and recurrent payments. These dates depend, apart from other revolutions in the wheel of
reproduction, on conditions closely connected with the seasons. They also regulate the dates for
payments that have no direct connexion with the circulation of commodities such as taxes, rents,
and so on. The quantity of money requisite to make the payments, falling due on those dates all
over the country, causes periodical, though merely superficial, perturbations in the economy of
the medium of payment.
56
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From the law of the rapidity of currency of the means of payment, it follows that the quantity of
the means of payment required for all periodical payments, whatever their source, is in inverse
57
proportion to the length of their periods.
58
The development of money into a medium of payment makes it necessary to accumulate money
against the dates fixed for the payment of the sums owing. While hoarding, as a distinct mode of
acquiring riches, vanishes with the progress of civil society, the formation of reserves of the
means of payment grows with that progress.
C. Universal Money
When money leaves the home sphere of circulation, it strips off the local garbs which it there
assumes, of a standard of prices, of coin, of tokens, and of a symbol of value, and returns to its
original form of bullion. In the trade between the markets of the world, the value of commodities
is expressed so as to be universally recognised. Hence their independent value-form also, in these
cases, confronts them under the shape of universal money. It is only in the markets of the world
that money acquires to the full extent the character of the commodity whose bodily form is also
the immediate social incarnation of human labour in the abstract. Its real mode of existence in this
sphere adequately corresponds to its ideal concept.
Within the sphere of home circulation, there can be but one commodity which, by serving as a
measure of value, becomes money. In the markets of the world a double measure of value holds
sway, gold and silver.
59
Money of the world serves as the universal medium of payment, as the universal means of
purchasing, and as the universally recognised embodiment of all wealth. Its function as a means
of payment in the settling of international balances is its chief one. Hence the watchword of the
mercantilists, balance of trade.
60
Gold and silver serve as international means of purchasing
chiefly and necessarily in those periods when the customary equilibrium in the interchange of
products between different nations is suddenly disturbed. And lastly, it serves as the universally
recognised embodiment of social wealth, whenever the question is not of buying or paying, but of
transferring wealth from one country to another, and whenever this transference in the form of
commodities is rendered impossible, either by special conjunctures in the markets or by the
purpose itself that is intended.
61
Just as every country needs a reserve of money for its home circulation so, too, it requires one for
external circulation in the markets of the world. The functions of hoards, therefore, arise in part
out of the function of money, as the medium of the home circulation and home payments, and in
part out of its function of money of the world.
62
For this latter function, the genuine money-
commodity, actual gold and silver, is necessary. On that account, Sir James Steuart, in order to
distinguish them from their purely local substitutes, calls gold and silver “money of the world.”
The current of the stream of gold and silver is a double one. On the one hand, it spreads itself
from its sources over all the markets of the world, in order to become absorbed, to various
extents, into the different national spheres of circulation, to fill the conduits of currency, to
replace abraded gold and silver coins, to supply the material of articles of luxury, and to petrify
into hoards.
63
This first current is started by the countries that exchange their labour, realised in
commodities, for the labour embodied in the precious metals by gold and silver-producing
countries. On the other hand, there is a continual flowing backwards and forwards of gold and
silver between the different national spheres of circulation, a current whose motion depends on
the ceaseless fluctuations in the course of exchange.
64
Countries in which the bourgeois form of production is developed to a certain extent, limit the
hoards concentrated in the strong rooms of the banks to the minimum required for the proper