lxii
INTRODUCTION: SECTION TWO
narratives of our experience, authority stands or falls on the basis
of reports of experience not on some scientific fact. At most neuro-
science provides approximations of experiences. It would seem that,
after a year hundred years since the VRE, the psychological study
of religion has not progressed beyond James’s own basic insights
on the nature and assessment of religious experience. Perhaps psy-
chology will only ever be chasing the elusive tail of religious expe-
rience, documenting the empty spaces of its language in the hopeless
attempt to catch one particle of the body of experience.
Conclusion: Experience and the Limits of
Psychological Knowledge
Steven Pinker in his popular book linking computational theory
of mind and the theory of the natural selection of replicators, How
the Mind Works, acknowledges the limits of the scientific project.
Echoing Noam Chomsky on the difference between problems and
mysteries, he acknowledges that some philosophical problems cannot
be solved because “the mind of Homo sapiens lacks the cognitive
equipment to solve them”.
91
Pinker condemns religion, and the
psychology
of religion, because he believes the field has been “mud-
died” by scholars who exalt religion while studying it. Perhaps, the
problem is that the discursive space of religion is mis-understood
and science assumes a crude subject-object relationship between
language when it explores the material world.
92
Such scientific
approaches underestimate the complexity of the socio-cultural-
linguistic space of religion as serving a cultural function for the
very limits of knowledge and the practices of living. It is, perhaps,
the very living experience of recognising that our brains do not
have the cognitive capacity to understand the mysteries of con-
sciousness and the universe, however long the species is given to
technologically advance its material knowledge, which brings us
back to James. It is this methodological humility that William James
employed in his own psychological examination of religion. As James
indicated it was the “over-beliefs” of individuals — the ideas, beliefs,
91
Pinker, S., How the Mind Works, London: Penguin, 1998, p. 561.
92
ibid., p. 555.
INTRODUCTION: SECTION TWO
lxiii
visions, raptures,
fanciful constructions, dogmas, which each believes
authentic — which are of such value to life. Indeed, for James,
“over-beliefs” are “the most interesting and valuable things” about
an individual, and we may say a society.
93
Science, like religion, is
full of “over-beliefs” and a return to the critical space of “experi-
ence” will reveal the richness of the human imagination to make
sense of life at the limits of understanding.
Pinker does concede some ground to James’s methodology when
he acknowledges the different orders of discourse in a 1999 inter-
view: “The fact that you can look at meaning and purpose in one
way, as a neuro-psychological phenomena, doesn’t mean you can’t
look at it another way, in terms of how we live our lives”.
94
To
acknowledge the politics of our experience is not to deny that
human experience is to some extent grounded in the physio-
logical processes of the brain and the body, its rather to under-
stand, with James, the limits of such insights.
95
The work of
neuroscience, and that of Persinger in particular, can offer impor-
tant contributions and points of engagement, but such work will
always be dependent on more complex human practices and be-
liefs. In a culture obsessed with scientific authority, the neuro-
science of religion needs to remember the limits of its discourse, in
the same way that religious discourse needs to recognise the limits
and scope of its enquiry. The return to James is a return to the
foundational humility of the subject of the psychology of religion
and a resistance to scientific imperialism, which performs such
abusive disciplinary amnesia in order to propagate its regime of
power. A return to James indicates that “religion” and “experience”
are important categories for making sense of human life, irrespective
of their confused cultural and neurological foundations. James’s
VRE still has much to teach contemporary psychology of religion
and neuroscience in the twenty-first century.
93
James, The Varieties, p. 397.
94
Pinker, S., “The Mind Reader”, The Guardian Profile Interview, in The Guardian,
Saturday November 6 1999, pp. 6–7.
95
Watts, F., “Brain, Mind and Soul” in Watts, Science Meets Faith, 1998, pp. 69–70.
lxiv
INTRODUCTION: SECTION TWO
RELIGION AND NEUROLOGY
1
THE
VARIETIES OF RELIGIOUS
EXPERIENCE
A STUDY IN HUMAN NATURE
BEING
THE GIFFORD LECTURES ON
NATURAL RELIGION DELIVERED AT
EDINBURGH IN 1901–1902
BY
WILLIAM JAMES, LL. D., E
TC
.
CORRESPONDING
MEMBER
OF
THE
INSTITUTE
OF
FRANCE
AND
OF
THE
ROYAL
PRUSSIAN
ACADEMY
OF
SCIENCES
,
PROFESSOR
OF
PHILOSOPHY
AT
HARVARD
UNIVERSITY
ELEVENTH IMPRESSION