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Celticised Tristram o f Lyonesse, as well as Wagner’s music drama Tristan undIsolde
(1859).* In addition to these texts, there was the scholarly reconstruction of the early
Tristram story by French scholar Joseph Bedier, whose Le Roman de Tristan et Iseult
(1900) was translated by Hilaire Belloc in 1903.146 This text supplied writers and
academics alike with an ‘authoritative’ version of the legend as it may have been
known to the authors o f the earliest surviving Tristram literature (Thomas, Beroul,
Eilhart and Gottfried) and seems likely to have inspired the new vogue for the
Tristram story in England in the mid-Edwardian period.
The vogue for Tristram and Iseult drama suggests that writers were reacting
against the influence o f Tennyson. Those dissatisfied with the dominance of the Idylls
paradigm also wrote on other tales ancillary to the Arthurian story. George Warwick
Deeping set his first novel, Uther and Igraine (1903), in the period immediately
preceding Arthur’s reign, while other writers turned away from the usual Arthurian
cast and wrote of characters who were not prominent in the Idylls. T.E. Ellis took
Lanfal as his protagonist in his four-act drama of 1908 while Jessie Weston’s ‘Knights
of King Arthur’s Court’ (1896) concentrated on the role of Percival in the Grail quest,
as did R.C. Trevelyan in The Birth ofParsival (1905) and The New Parsifal (1914).147
There was also a developing trend for authors to divorce the Grail from its Arthurian
frame. Evelyn Underhill’s The Column o f Dust (1909) was the first of several novels
and novellas which transferred the Grail to modern rural and urban surroundings
(these are discussed in chapter three).148
While the vogue for producing non-Tennysonian Arthurian literature revealed
many twentieth-century authors’ discontent with the dominance of the Idylls, none of
these works challenged the authority of the paradigm. They avoided the Tennysonian
* Whether poets and dramatists chose English or German sources as their chief inspiration is usually
apparent in the name-form o f their hero: ‘Tristram’ signifying English influence, ‘Tristan’ betraying a
Wagnerian bias.
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story, rather than trying to rewrite or adapt it to suit contemporary social contexts.
And throughout the period Tennyson’s poetry had been sold and read in Edwardian
and Georgian homes and numerous lesser poets and authors (often writing for
children) had continued replicating the Idylls for new audiences. Those few writers
who did dissent from the paradigm - Hill in his, rather limited, defence of Guinevere,
or Kinross in her brief but sympathetic portrait of the queen - only managed to give
voice to individual characters’ resistance to a nineteenth-century plot. Guinevere may
rail at her treatment at the hands of Arthur and his knights, but the narrative and
ideological structure o f Hill’s and Kinross’s plays remain conservative, patriarchal
and overwhelmingly domestic.
Whereas in the nineteenth century the Idylls had been an epic treatment of
liberal bourgeois England, which had striven to present ‘all the lights and all the
woes’ of half a century, the Tennysonian literature of the early twentieth century was
increasingly reactionary, harking back to a never-never land o f Victorian idealism.
The element of patriarchal chauvinism evident in the Idylls themselves had, in the
hands of Carr and his successors, become the dominant theme in subsequent
Arthurian drama and the legend as a whole had become an increasingly unwieldy
edifice. And yet it would require a momentous act of history to dislodge the
Tennysonian paradigm and the Victorian conception of the medieval: this was the
Great War.
Chapter Two
That ‘dim, weird battle in the west’: Arthurian literary
production and the Great War
Tennyson’s Idylls o f the King was one of the great cultural achievements of the
Victorian age. Its influence was apparent everywhere and, in terms of the Arthurian
story, it dominated subsequent literary production for decades. And although as a
paradigm it seems to have grown stagnant in the Edwardian and Georgian years (its
literary products being the ‘uninspired beneficiaries of the Victorian momentum’, in
Nathan Comfort Starr’s words), it remained a culturally persuasive and influential
force: its authority only challenged by the outbreak of the Great War.1
The 1914-1918 conflict proved ruinous for the Tennysonian paradigm, as it
did so many other monuments of Victorian, bourgeois culture. The story o f Arthur
itself was little employed by the wartime propagandists who sought to utilise chivalry
and medieval iconography as part of the ideological war effort. The story o f a British
civilisation overwhelmed by Saxon hordes was hardly inspirational stuff, especially
when depicted, as in the Idylls, as a form of internal collapse. The Idylls, in particular,
were unsuitable as wartime reading. Tennyson’s epic presented war as a wholly
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destructive force. There is little martial glory in Tennyson’s depiction o f the ‘last,
dim, weird battle of the west’ in which ‘friend and foe were shadows in the mist, /
And friend slew friend not knowing which he slew’; or in:
Oaths, insults, filth and monstrous blasphemies,
Sweat, writhings, anguish, labouring of the lungs
In that close mist, and cryings for the light,
Moans for the dying, and voices for the dead.2
And although there was a resurgence in interest in the Matter o f Britain in the closing
years of the war - chiefly with poets and artists registering their horror of modem
warfare - the Tennysonian paradigm never fully recovered its pre-war dominance.
The guns of Europe wrecked the Victorian Camelot.
Yet the Arthurian story was not entirely abandoned in these years, for many
jingoists who rejected Arthur could turn to Galahad for patriotic inspiration. The cult
of this ‘pure knight’ had been growing throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries as an alternative to the moral complexities of the Idylls. Throughout the
Victorian age, Galahad and the Grail were ancillary, rather than essential, parts of the
Arthurian story and before examining the ways in which this ‘maiden knight’ was
utilised during the First World War, it is necessary to examine how the cult of
Galahad developed in the previous century.
The cult of Galahad in the nineteenth century
When war broke out in August 1914, many patriotic poets and propagandists utilised
Victorian notions of chivalry to persuade young men to enlist in what would, they
assured them, be a short, glorious war. Yet Arthur, Lancelot, Tristram and Perceval
were seldom among those paraded heroes of the British past. This had little to do with
their mythical, rather than historical, basis; after all, St George was the most
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