Microsoft Word Pub Series 004 # Kamil doc

 

 

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for L2 reading acquisition. This approach has parallels with approaches developed for bidialectal 

speakers of English, where educators use students’ home language as a resource for the 

acquisition of Standard English (LeMoine, 1999). 

Anderson and Roit (1996) developed a set of suggestions based on six instructional issues 

they had identified from observations of lessons with a high percentage of minority language 

students (Grades 1–8). These instructional suggestions aimed to build on students’ primary 

language, cognitive strengths, and social skills—e.g., sharing reading, expanding contexts, 

questioning, sharing strategies, and using culturally familiar informational texts (Anderson & 

Roit, 1996). 

Another approach, the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA), is 

based on the integration of content area instruction with language development and explicit 

instruction in learning strategies (Chamot & O’Malley, 1987; 1996). Designed for upper 

elementary and secondary students at intermediate or advanced levels of ESL, the program aims 

to provide explicit instruction in learning strategies, including cognitive (e.g., note-taking, 

summarizing), metacognitive (e.g., monitoring comprehension, self assessment), and affective 

strategies (e.g., cooperation, self-talk). However, systematic program evaluation and information 

about the effects of CALLA on student achievement are currently not available (Chamot & 

O’Malley, 1996). Clearly, more research is needed to investigate the effectiveness of these 

instructional methods, particularly with young children. 

 

Related Issues in Instruction 

Instructional Materials  

Researchers who have analyzed teaching materials conclude that teachers are not given 

the information they need to work effectively with bilingual students (e.g., Bernhardt, 1994). 

Garcia et al. (1993) reviewed journal articles published on L2 reading instruction as well as the 

basal reading teacher manuals and supplementary materials published for Grades 1, 4, and 6 of 

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the regular classroom. They noted that these materials tended to focus on developing oral 

language rather than literacy. They expressed concern that teachers were not given ready access 

to information they needed in the teacher manuals about reading instruction for L2 learners. 

Another problem was that the materials did not provide specific grade-level information.  

Having access to literature and culturally rich material is important for reading 

development for L2 learners. However, a number of researchers have noted the shortage of 

multicultural children’s literature in English, Spanish, and other languages (e.g., Aloki, 1993; 

Nieto, 1993), and even of simple Spanish reading materials for preschool students (Goldenberg, 

1994). Additionally, because learning about text genre is an important aspect of literacy, 

instruction should make use of information texts in addition to fiction (Kamil & Bernhardt, 2001). 

Information texts can enable children to use their world knowledge to aid comprehension. 

Although the general perception is that stories are easier for children to understand, research with 

young monolinguals has shown that children enjoy information texts as much as stories (Pappas, 

1993). Although there is as yet no solid research base for the use of information texts in L2 

reading instruction, we recommend the use of such texts as part of an overall strategy of 

providing diverse and content-rich materials. 

 

Assessment Instruments 

The issue of how difficult it is to measure accurately bilingual children’s receptive 

language skills has been raised above. Oral proficiency measures of L2 alone do not accurately 

predict a young child’s reading ability. Furthermore, standardized tests tend to underestimate L2 

learners’ ability. In a study of fifth- and sixth-grade Hispanic students, Garcia (1991) found that 

their test scores seriously underestimated their reading comprehension potential. Specifically, she 

noted that unfamiliar test topics and vocabulary adversely affected the children’s test 

performance. Furthermore, the children’s interview responses showed that they understood more 

about the test passage than their scores revealed. Fernandez, Pearson, Umbel, and Oller (1992) 

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found that the word order difficulty on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test – Revised, Form L 

(1981) and its Spanish version (1986) differed substantially for Cuban preschoolers in Miami 

compared to the norming samples in English and Spanish. They cautioned that the use of a single-

language vocabulary test does not capture what children know in their other language. 

Limbos and Geva (2001) examined the accuracy of teacher assessments in screening for 

reading disabilities among first-grade ESL and native-English speakers. They concluded that 

teacher rating scales and nominations had a low sensitivity in identifying reading disability in 

either group as determined by a standardized reading score. The main implication of these 

findings is to caution against relying solely on a standardized test score for assessment and 

placement purposes. Instead, alternative assessments should be considered, such as think-aloud 

protocols, clinical interviews, and retellings (Garcia et al., 1998). Where test scores are used, they 

should be interpreted with the knowledge that these instruments do not measure L2 students’ 

other cognitive and linguistic abilities.  

 

Issues in Teacher Education for L2 Reading 

The Research Base 

Recent developments in education have highlighted the importance of teacher education 

and its impact on learning outcomes (NRP, 2000). The NRP analysis of teacher education and L1 

reading instruction shows that inservice professional development produced significant effects for 

both teachers and students. It was not possible to determine the effect of teacher education on 

student achievement in the preservice studies, but there were clear effects in terms of teacher 

outcome behaviors (NRP, 2000). Most of these studies included teachers in the elementary 

grades. Although the research base is somewhat limited, it is clear that teacher education in L1 

reading instruction leads to teacher change and, in those few studies that measured student 

outcomes, student achievement as well. Teacher education for L2 reading instruction is much less 

well researched.  

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