Motivation

Motivation

• Motivation

• Why study programming languages?

• Some key concepts

What is a programming language?

• What is a programming language?

“...there is no agreement on what a programming language really is and what its main purpose is supposed to be. Is a programming language a tool for instructing machines? A means of communicating between programmers? A vehicle for expressing high-level designs? A notation for algorithms? A way of expressing relationships between concepts? A tool for experimentation? A means of controlling computerized devices? My view is that a general-purpose programming language must be all of those to serve its diverse set of users. The only thing a language cannot be – and survive – is a mere collection of ‘‘neat’’ features.”

• “...there is no agreement on what a programming language really is and what its main purpose is supposed to be. Is a programming language a tool for instructing machines? A means of communicating between programmers? A vehicle for expressing high-level designs? A notation for algorithms? A way of expressing relationships between concepts? A tool for experimentation? A means of controlling computerized devices? My view is that a general-purpose programming language must be all of those to serve its diverse set of users. The only thing a language cannot be – and survive – is a mere collection of ‘‘neat’’ features.”

• -- Bjarne Stroustrup, The Design and Evolution of C++

• http://cs.umbc.edu/courses/331/papers/dne_notes.pdf

Idea: language effects thought

• Idea: language effects thought

• “A strong version of the hypothesis holds that language determines thought and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories. A weaker version states that linguistic categories and usage influence thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behaviour.” – Wikipedia

• Still controversial for natural languages: eskimos, numbers, etc.

• See Does Your Language Shape How You Think?

• Does a choice of a programming language effect the program ‘ideas’ you can express?

“The tools we use have a profound (and devious!) influence on our thinking habits, and therefore, on our thinking abilities.” -- Edsger Dijkstra, How do we tell truths that might hurt

• “The tools we use have a profound (and devious!) influence on our thinking habits, and therefore, on our thinking abilities.” -- Edsger Dijkstra, How do we tell truths that might hurt

• “A language that doesn't affect the way you think about programming, is not worth knowing” -- Alan Perlis

“What doesn't exist are really powerful general forms of arguing with computers right now. So we have to have special orders coming in on special cases and then think up ways to do it. Some of these are generalizable and eventually you will get an actual engineering discipline.”

• “What doesn't exist are really powerful general forms of arguing with computers right now. So we have to have special orders coming in on special cases and then think up ways to do it. Some of these are generalizable and eventually you will get an actual engineering discipline.”

• -- Alan Kay, Educom Review

• Alan Kay is one of the inventors of the Smalltalk programming language and one of the fathers of the idea of OOP. He is the conceiver of the laptop computer and the architect of the modern windowing GUI.

Sometimes, language follows thought, doesn’t lead it:

• Sometimes, language follows thought, doesn’t lead it:

• Cannot conceive of that which you cannot imagine, cannot convey that which you cannot describe, but…

• However, you can often cobble together descriptions of nearly-arbitrary concepts w/limited vocabularies

• E.g. 1: Korean: no plurals
• E.g. 2: Chinese: no gendered pronouns
• E.g. 3: C++ in C: OOP initially implemented as a set of C macros

Languages sometimes do drive thought:

• Languages sometimes do drive thought:

• People say French is a romantic language

• Gendered nouns affect thoughts

• In programming:

• E.g. 1: Thinking “object-orientedly”
• E.g. 2: Logic programming: no procedural thoughts!

Relevance to studying programming languages:

• Relevance to studying programming languages:

• We should study many PLs, for:

• Inspiration: e.g., OOP
• Using proper tool:
• “to a hammer…” (but a hammer can be used for many things, clumsily)
• Efficiency: need to be able to build on existing artifacts, instead of re-implementing

Why study PL concepts?

• Why study PL concepts?

• Programming domains

• PL evaluation criteria

• What influences PL design?

• Tradeoffs faced by programming languages

• Implementation methods

• Programming environments

Increased capacity to express programming concepts

• Increased capacity to express programming concepts

• Improved background for choosing appropriate languages

• Enhanced ability to learn new languages

• Improved understanding of the significance of implementation

• Increased ability to design new languages

• Mastering different programming paradigms

Scientific applications

• Scientific applications

• Business applications

• Artificial intelligence

• Systems programming

• Scripting languages

• Special purpose languages

• Mobile, eductional, Web, massively parallel, …

Readability

• Readability

• Writability

• Reliability

• Cost

• Etc…

How easy is it to read and understand programs written in the programming language?

• How easy is it to read and understand programs written in the programming language?

• Arguably the most important criterion!

• Factors effecting readability include:

• Overall simplicity: too many features is bad, as is a multiplicity of features (multiple ways to do same thing)
• Orthogonality: a relatively small set of primitive constructs combinable in a relatively small number of ways to build the language’s control and data structures
• Makes the language easy to learn and read
• Meaning is context independent
• Control statements
• Data type and structures
• Syntax considerations

How easy is it to write programs in the language?

• How easy is it to write programs in the language?

• Factors effecting writability:

• Simplicity and orthogonality
• Support for abstraction
• Expressivity
• Fit for the domain and problem

Factors:

• Factors:

• - Type checking

• - Exception handling

• - Aliasing

• - Readability and writability

Categories:

• Categories:

• Programmer training
• Software creation
• Compilation
• Execution
• Compiler cost
• Poor reliability
• Maintenance

Portability

• Portability

• Generality

• Well-definedness

• Good fit for hardware (e.g., cell) or environment (e.g., Web)

• etc…

We use imperative languages, at least in part, because we use von Neumann machines

• We use imperative languages, at least in part, because we use von Neumann machines

• John von Neuman is generally considered to be the inventor of the "stored program" machines, the class to which most of today's computers belong
• One CPU + one memory system that contains both program and data

• Focus on moving data and program instructions between registers in CPU to memory locations

• Fundamentally sequential

50s and early 60s: Simple applications; worry about machine efficiency

• 50s and early 60s: Simple applications; worry about machine efficiency

• Late 60s: People efficiency became important; readability, better control structures. maintainability

• Late 70s: Data abstraction

• Middle 80s: Object-oriented programming

• 90s: distributed programs, Internet

• 00s: Web, user interfaces, graphics, mobile, services

• 10s: parallel computing, cloud computing?, pervasive computing?, semantic computing?, virtual machines?

The big four PL paradigms:

• The big four PL paradigms:

• Imperative or procedural (e.g., Fortran, C)
• Object-oriented (e.g. Smalltalk, Java)
• Functional (e.g., Lisp, ML)
• Rule based (e.g. Prolog, Jess)

• Others:

• Scripting (e.g., Python, Perl, PHP, Ruby)
• Constraint (e.g., Eclipse)
• Concurrent (Occam)
• …

Reliability versus cost of execution

• Reliability versus cost of execution

• Ada, unlike C, checks all array indices to ensure proper range but has very expensive compilation

• Writability versus readability

• (2 = 0 +.= T o.| T) / T <- iN
• APL one-liner producing prime numbers from 1 to N, obscure to all but the author

• Flexibility versus safety

• C, unlike Java, allows one to do arithmetic on pointers, see worse is better

Direct execution by hardware

• Direct execution by hardware

• e.g., native machine language

• Compilation to another language

• e.g., C compiled to native machine language for Intel Pentium 4

• Interpretation: direct execution by software

• e.g., csh, Lisp (traditionally), Python, JavaScript

• Hybrid: compilation then interpretation

• Compilation to another language (aka bytecode), then interpreted by a ‘virtual machine’, e.g., Java, Perl

• Just-in-time compilation

• Dynamically compile some bytecode to native code (e.g., V8 javascript engine)

Complexity of compiler/interpreter

• Complexity of compiler/interpreter

• Translation speed

• Execution speed

• Code portability

• Code compactness

• Debugging ease

Collection of tools used in software development, often including an integrated editor, debugger, compiler, collaboration tool, etc.

• Collection of tools used in software development, often including an integrated editor, debugger, compiler, collaboration tool, etc.

• Modern Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) tend to be language specific, allowing them to offer support at the level at which the programmer thinks.

• Examples:

• UNIX -- Operating system with tool collection
• EMACS – a highly programmable text editor
• Smalltalk -- A language processor/environment
• Microsoft Visual C++ -- A large, complex visual environment
• Your favorite Java environment: BlueJ, Jbuilder, J++, …
• Generic: IBM’s Eclipse

Programming languages have many aspects & uses

• Programming languages have many aspects & uses

• There are many reasons to study the concepts underlying programming languages

• There are several criteria for evaluating PLs

• Programming languages are constantly evolving

• Classic techniques for executing PLs are compilation and interpretation, with variations