INDICATORS OF MAJOR DISCOVERIES
1. Discoveries resulting in the Copley Medal, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Society of London, insofar as the award was for basic biomedical research.
-
Discoveries resulting in a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine since the first award in 1901.
-
Discoveries resulting in a Nobel Prize in Chemistry since the first award in 1901, insofar as the research had high relevance to biomedical science.
-
Discoveries resulting in ten nominations in any three years prior to 1940 for a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.††
-
Discoveries resulting in ten nominations in any three years prior to 1940 for a Nobel Prize in Chemistry if the research had high relevance to biomedical science.††
-
Discoveries identified as prizeworthy for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine by the Karolinska Institute committee to study major discoveries and to propose Nobel Prize winners.††
-
Discoveries identified as prizeworthy for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences committee to study major discoveries and to propose Nobel Prize winners.†† These prizeworthy discoveries were included if the research had high relevance to biomedical science.
-
Discoveries resulting in the Arthur and Mary Lasker Prize for basic biomedical science.
-
Discoveries resulting in the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize in basic biomedical science.
-
Discoveries resulting in the Crafoord Prize, awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, if the discovery had high relevance to the biological sciences.
†† I have had access to the Nobel Archives for the Physiology or Medicine Prize at the Karolinska Institute and to the Archives at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm for the period from 1901 to 1940. I am most grateful to Ragnar Björk, who did most of the research in the Karolinska Institute’s archives to identify major discoveries according to the indicators in this table. Because the archives are closed for the past 50 years for reasons of confidentiality, I have used other prizes (Lasker, Horwitz, Crafoord) to identify major discoveries in the last several decades.
TABLE TWO
TWO GENERAL TYPES OF LABORATORIES IN THE BASIC BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES
Characteristics of Type A Laboratories
1. Cognitive: High scientific diversity
2. Social: Well connected to invisible colleges (e.g. networks) in diverse fields
3. Material Resources: Access to new instrumentation and funding for high-risk research
4. Personality of lab head: High cognitive complexity, high confidence and motivation
5. Leadership: Excellent grasp of ways that different scientific fields might be integrated and ability to move research in that direction.
Characteristics of Type B Laboratories
1. Cognitive: Moderately low scientific diversity
2. Social: Well connected to invisible colleges (e.g. networks) in a single discipline
3. Material Resources: Limited funding for high-risk research
4. Personality of lab head: Lack of high cognitive complexity, limited inclination to conduct high-risk research
5. Leadership: Not greatly concerned with integrating different scientific fields
TABLE THREE
JEWISH SCIENTISTS WHO MADE MAJOR DISCOVERIES IN BASIC BIOMEDICAL AND RELATED SCIENCES 1901–2005‡
Part One: Jewish Scientists Awarded Nobel Prizes in Physiology of Medicine
Paul Ehrlich (1908)
Elie Metchnikoff (1908)
Robert Bárány (1914)
Otto Meyerhof (1922)
Karl Landsteiner (1930)
Otto Warburg (1931)
Otto Loewi (1936)
Joseph Erlanger (1944)
Herbert Gasser (1944)
Sir Ernst Chain (1945)
Hermann Muller (1946)
Gerty Cori (1947)
Tadeus Reichstein (1950)
Selman Waksman (1952)
Sir Hans Krebs (1953)
Fritz Lipmann (1953)
Joshua Lederberg (1958)
Arthur Kornberg (1959)
Konrad Bloch (1964)
Francois Jacob (1965)
André Lwoff (1965)
George Wald (1967)
Marshall Nirenberg (1968)
Salvador Luria (1969)
Julius Axelrod (1970)
Sir Bernard Katz (1970)
Gerald Edelman (1972)
David Baltimore (1975)
Howard Temin (1975)
Baruch Blumberg (1976)
Andrew Schally (1977)
Rosalyn Yalow (1977)
Daniel Nathans (1978)
Baruj Benacerraf (1980)
Sir John Vane (1982)
César Milstein (1984)
Michael Brown (1985)
Joseph Goldstein (1985)
Stanley Cohen (1986)
Rita Levi-Montalcini (1986)
Gertrude Elion (1988)
Harold Varmus (1989)
Edmond Fischer (1992)
Alfred Gilman (1994)
Martin Rodbell (1994)
Stanley Prusiner (1997)
Robert Furchgott (1998)
Paul Greengard (2000)
Eric Kandel (2000)
Sydney Brenner (2002)
H. Robert Horvitz (2002)
Richard Axel (2004)
Part Two: Jewish Scientist Awarded Nobel Prizes in Areas of Chemistry Relevant to Basic Biomedical Science
Adolph von Baeyer (1905)
Henri Moissan (1906)
Otto Wallach (1910)
Richard Willstätter (1915)
Fritz Haber (1918)
George de Hevesy (1943)
Melvin Calvin (1961)
Max Perutz (1962)
Christian Anfinsen (1972)
William Stein (1972)
Ilya Prigogine (1977)
Herbert Brown (1979)
Paul Berg (1980)
Walter Gilbert (1980)
Roald Hoffmann (1981)
Aaron Klug (1982)
Herbert Hauptman (1985)
Jerome Karle (1985)
John Polanyi (1986)
Sidney Altman (1989)
Rudolph Marcus (1992)
George Olah (1994)
Harold Kroto (1996)
Walter Kohn (1998)
Alan Heeger (2000)
Aaron Ciechanover (2004)
Avram Hershko (2004)
Irwin Rose (2004)
Part Three: Jewish Scientists Awarded the Lasker Award in Basic Biomedical Science
Selman Waksman (1948)
Sir Hans Krebs (1953)
Michael Heidelberger (1953)
George Wald (1953)
Theodore Puck (1958)
Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat (1958)
Jules Freund (1959)
Harry Rubin (1964)
Bernard Brodie (1967)
Marshall Nirenberg (1968)
Seymour Benzer (1971)
Sydney Brenner (1971)
Charles Yanofsky (1971)
Ludwik Gross (1974)
Sol Spiegelman (1974)
Howard Temin (1974)
Andrew Schally (1975)
Rosalyn Yalow (1976)
Sir John Vane (1977)
Hans Kosterlitz (1978)
Solomon Snyder (1978)
Walter Gilbert (1979)
Paul Berg (1980)
Stanley N. Cohen (1980)
Harold Varmus (1982)
Eric Kandel (1983)
César Milstein (1984)
Michael Brown (1985)
Joseph Goldstein (1985)
Rita Levi-Montalcini (1986)
Stanley Cohen (1986)
Philip Leder (1987)
Alfred Gilman (1989)
Stanley Prusiner (1994)
Jack Strominger (1995)
Robert Furchgott (1996)
Mark Ptashne (1997)
Aaron Ciechanover (2000)
Avram Hershko (2000)
Alexander Varshavsky (2000)
James Rothman (2002)
Randy Schekman (2002)
Part Four: Jewish Scientist Awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize
Marshall Nirenberg (1968)
Salvador Luria (1969)
Harry Eagle (1973)
Theodore Puck (1973)
Boris Ephrussi (1974)
Seymour Benzer (1976)
Charles Yanofsky (1976)
Michael Heidelberger (1977)
Elvin Kabat (1977)
Walter Gilbert (1979)
César Milstein (1980)
Aaron Klug (1981)
Stanley Cohen (1983)
Viktor Hamburger (1983)
Rita Levi-Montalcini (1983)
Michael Brown (1984)
Joseph Goldstein (1984)
Mark Ptashne (1985)
Alfred Gilman (1989)
Stephen Harrison (1990)
Michael Rossmann (1990)
Stanley Prusiner (1997)
Arnold Levine (1998)
Bert Vogelstein (1998)
H. Robert Horvitz (2000)
Avram Hershko (2001)
Alexander Varshavsky (2001)
James Rothman (2002)
Randy Schekman (2002)
Ada Yonath (2005)
‡ More than 90 percent of the individuals in this table had two Jewish parents. Also listed are a few individuals who had one parent who was Jewish and one who was not. Several (e.g., Karl Landsteiner and Gerty Cori) converted from Judaism to Catholicism. For purposes of this paper, this kind of issue is not highly relevant, for the concern is whether the individual internalized multiple cultures. Anyone who reads the biographies of Landsteiner (Rous, 1945; Speiser and Smekal, 1975) or Cori (McGrayne, 1993) will observe that they clearly internalized multiple cultures—partly because of their Jewish ancestry. For additional information on this subject, see “Jewish Nobel Prize Winners,” http://www.jinfo.org/ Nobel_Prizes.html (accessed 3 May 2006); “Jewish Winners of the Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research,” http://www.jinfo.org/Biology_Lasker_Basic.html (accessed 3 May 2006); “Jewish Winners of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize,” http://www.jinfo.org/ Biology_Horwitz.html (accessed 3 May 2006); Hargittai, 2002.
TABLE FOUR**
TWENTIETH CENTURY SCIENTISTS WHO MADE MAJOR DISCOVERIES WHO WERE ALSO QUITE ACTIVE IN MUSIC, ART, WRITING, CRAFTS, AND POLITICS
* Received Nobel, Lasker, Horwitz, Crafoord Prize and/or Copley Medal.
# Scientists whose discoveries resulted in 10 nominations in three different years prior to 1940 for a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine or in Chemistry if the research had high relevance to biomedical science.
Musicians:
Luis Alvarez* Physicist
Clay Armstrong* Biologist
Oswald T. Avery* Microbiologist
Georg von Békésy* Physiologist
Walter B. Cannon# Physiologist
Ernst Chain* Chemist
Louis De Broglie* Physicist
Gerald Edelman* Biologist
Manfred Eigen* Chemist
Albert Einstein* Physicist
Richard Feynman* Physicist
Otto Frisch Physicist
Michael Heidelberger# Chemist
Werner Heisenberg* Physicist
Gerhard Herzberg* Chemist
William Lipscomb* Chemist
Jacques Loeb# Biologist
Ernst Mach Physicist
Barbara McClintock* Geneticist
Lise Meitner Physicist
Albert A. Michelson* Physicist
Jacques Monod* Biologist
Rolf Nevanlinna Mathematician
Wilhelm Ostwald* Physical Chemist
Max Planck* Physicist
Mark Ptashne* Biologist
Ronald Ross* Biologist
Solomon Snyder* Biologist
Arnold Sommerfeld Physicist
Charles Stevens Biologist
Joseph J. Sylvester Mathematician
Axel Hugo Theorell* Physiologist
Georges Urbain Physicist
Paul Urban Physicist
J.H. Van’t Hoff* Physical Chemist
Emil Warburg* Biologist/Chemist
Victor Weisskopf Physicist
Edmund B. Wilson Biologist
Composers of Music:
Albert A. Michelson* Physicist
Ronald Ross* Biologist
Walter Thirring Physicist
Georges Urbain Chemist
Poets:
Marie Curie* Physical Chemist
Fritz Haber* Chemist
Otto Hahn* Physical Chemist
A.V. Hill* Biologist
Roald Hoffmann* Chemist
Otto Meyerhof* Biologist
S.H. Mueller Mathematician
H.J. Muller* Geneticist
Walther Nernst* Physical Chemist
William Ramsay* Physical Chemist
Charles Richet* Physiologist
Ronald Ross* Biologist
Erwin Schrödinger* Physicist
Charles Sherrington* Physiologist
J. H. Van’t Hoff* Physical Chemist
Selman A. Waksman* Bacteriologist
Richard Willstätter* Chemist
Dramatists:
Fritz Haber* Chemist Charles Richet* Physiologist
Novelists:
Carl Djerassi Chemist
Fred Hoyle Astrophysicist
Charles Richet* Physiologist
Norbert Wiener Cyberneticist
Painters and Sketchers:
Edgar Adrian* Physiologist
Frederick Banting* Physiologist
Joseph Barcroft# Physiologist
Theodor Boveri* Biologist
William Bragg* Physicist
Lawrence Bragg* Physicist
Ernst Brücke Physiologist
Harvey Cushing# Surgeon
H. von Euler-Chelpin* Biochemist
Richard Feynman* Physicist
Alexander Fleming* Bacteriologist
Howard Florey* Chemist
Roger Guillemin* Physiologist
Cyril Hinshelwood* Physical Chemist
Dorothy Hodgkin* Chemist
Joseph Lister# Physician
Otto Loewi* Physiologist
Konrad Lorenz* Ethologist
Wilhelm Ostwald* Physical Chemist
Louis Pasteur Biologist
S. Ramon y Cajal* Neuroanatomist
E.A. Scharpey-Schaefer* Physiologist
Nico Tinbergen* Biologist
E. O. Wilson* Biologist
Sculptors:
Robert Holley* Biochemist
Salvadore Luria* Biologist
Roger Sperry* Biologist
Georges Urbain Physicist
Drafters:
Luis Alvarez* Physicist
George Beadle* Biologist
Linus Pauling* Physical Chemist
William Ramsay* Physical Chemist
Involved in Architecture:
Gunter Blöbel* Biologist
Otto Hahn* Chemist
Peter Mitchell* Biologist
Robert G. Roeder Biologist
Photographers:
Patrick Blackett* Physicist
Gertrude Elion* Biochemist
Howard Florey* Chemist
Tim Hunt* Biochemist
Robert Koch* Bacteriologist
Gabriel Lippman* Physicist
Wilhelm Ostwald* Physical Chemist
S. Ramon y Cajal* Neuroanatomist
Wilhelm Roentgen* Physicist
Ernest Rutherford* Physicist
E.A. Sharpey-Schaefer* Physician
Nico Tinbergen* Biologist
Charles T.R. Wilson* Physicist
Woodworkers or Metalworkers:
Luis Alvarez* Physicist
Joseph Barcroft* Physiologist
Georg von Békésy* Physiologist
William Bayliss* Physiologist
Walter Cannon# Physiologist
Gerald Edelman* Biologist
J. Willard Gibbs Physicist
Walter Rudolf Hess* Biologist
Andrew Huxley* Biologist
Barbara McClintock* Geneticist
Wilhelm Ostwald* Physical Chemist
Louis Pasteur Physician/Immunologist
William Ramsay* Physical Chemist
Theodor Svedberg* Physical Chemist
Scientists Who Wrote Philosophy, History, Anthropology, and/or Popular Science:
Paul Berg* Biologist
Baruch Blumberg* Biologist
Niels Bohr* Physicist
Pierre Broca Biologist
Alexis Carrel* Biologist
Erwin Chargaff Biochemist
Andre Cournand* Biologist
Frances Crick* Biologist/Physicist
Richard Dawkins Biologist/Ethologist
John Eccles* Biologist
Gerald Edelman* Biologist
Manfred Eigen* Chemist
Albert Einstein* Physicist
Richard Feyman* Physicist
Sigmund Freud# Physician/Psychiatrist
Simon Flexner# Biologist
Murray Gell-Mann* Physicist
Stephen J. Gould Biologist
Stephen Hawking Physicist
Werner Heisenberg* Physicist
Fred Hoyle Astrophysicist
Francois Jacob* Biologist
Eric Kandel* Biologist
Hans Krebs* Biochemist
M.T.F. von Laue* Physicist
Joshua Lederberg* Biologist
Richard Lewontin Biologist
Ernst Mach Physicist
Ernst Mayr* Biologist
Peter Medawar* Biologist
Otto Meyerhof* Biologist
Robert Millikan* Physicist
Jacques Monod* Biologist
Wilhelm Ostwald* Physical Chemist
Max Perutz* Chemist
Max Planck* Physicist
Henri Poincaré Mathematician
Michael Polanyi Chemist
Ilya Prigogine* Physicist
S. Ramon y Cajal* Biologist
Martin Rees Astrophysicist/Cosmologist
Peyton Rous* Biologist
Oliver Sacks Neurologist
Carl Sagan Astronomer
Erwin Schrödinger* Physicist
Charles Sherrington* Physiologist
Nikolaas Tinbergen* Biologist/Ethologist
J.H. Van’t Hoff* Chemist
James D. Watson* Biologist
Steven Weinberg* Physicist
E. O. Wilson* Biologist
Political Activists:
John Desmond Bernal Physicist
Patrick Blackett* Physicist
Niels Bohr* Physicist
John Cockcroft* Physicist
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin* Chemist
Paul Doty Chemist
Frédéric Joliot-Curie* Chemist
Irene Joliot-Curie* Chemist
Albert Einstein* Physicist
James Franck* Physicist
Archibald Vivian Hill* Biologist
Robert Koch* Biologist
Joshua Lederberg* Biologist
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz* Physicist
Salvador Luria* Biologist
Matthew Meselson Biologist
Jacques Monod* Biologist
Nevill Mott* Physicist
Robert Oppenheimer Physicist
John Polanyi* Chemist
Linus Pauling* Physical Chemist
Ronald Ross* Biologist/Physician
Abdus Salam* Physicist
Richard Synge* Chemist
Leo Szilard Physicist
Edward Teller Physicist
James D. Watson* Biologist
Victor Weisskopf Physicist
** In the preparation of the material for Table Four, I am not only indebted to all of the individuals whom I interviewed for this paper (see references above) but especially to the scholarship of Robert Scott Root-Bernstein and to the following published references:
Brandmüller, Josef and Claus, Reinhard (1982) “Symmetry: Its Significance in Science and Art.”, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 7: 296–308.
Curtin, Deane W. (1982) The Aesthetic Dimension of Science: 1980 Nobel Conference. New York: Philosophical Library.
Eiduson, Bernice T. (1962) Scientists: Their Psychological World. New York: Basic Books.
Furguson, Eugene (1977) “The Mind’s Eye: Nonverbal Thought in Technology,” Science 197: 827–36.
Hammond, Allen L. (ed.) (1985) A Passion to Know: Twenty Profiles in Science. New York: Scribner.
Hindle, Brooke (1981) Emulation and Invention. New York: New York University Press.
Kassler, Jamie C. (1982) “Music As A Model in Early Science”, History of Science, 20: 103–39.
Lepage, Geoffrey (1961) Art and the Scientist. Bristol: J. Wright.
Levarie, Siegmund (1980) “Music As A Structural Model”, Journal of Social and Biological Structures, 3: 237–45.
Miller, Arthur I. (1984) Imagery in Scientific Thought: Creating Twentieth Century Physics. Boston: Birkhäuser.
Nachmansohn, David (1979) German Jewish Pioneers in Science, 1900–1933: Highlights in Physics, Chemistry, and Biochemistry. Berlin and New York: Springer-Verlag.
Nickles, Thomas (ed.) (1980) Scientific Discovery: Case Studies. Boston: Kluwer.
Nye, Mary Jo. (2004) Blackett: Physics, War, and Politics in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press.
Ostwald, Wilhelm (1912) Les Grands Hommes. Paris: E. Flammarion.
Rauscher, Francis H. and Shaw, Gordon L. (1998) “Key Components of the Mozart Effect,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86: 835–41.
Ritterbush, Philip C. (1968) The Art of Organic Forms. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Roe, Anne (1951) “A Study of Imagery in Research Scientists,” Journal of Personality, 19: 459–70.
Roe, Ann (1953) The Making of a Scientist. New York: Dodd, Mead.
Root-Bernstein, Robert Scott (1989) Discovering. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (especially pp. 312–342).
Root-Bernstein, Robert Scott and Root-Bernstein, Michèle M. (1999) Sparks of Genius. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Tinbergen, Niko (2003) Nico’s Nature: The Life of Nico Tinbergen and His Science of Animal Behaviour. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Van’t Hoff, Jacobus H. (1967) “Imagination in Science,” Molecular Biology, Biochemistry, and Biophysics, I: 1–18. Tr. Georg F. Springer.
Waddington, Conrad Hal (1969) Behind Appearance: A Study of the Relations Between Painting and the Natural Sciences in This Century. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Wechsler, Judith (ed.) (1978) On Aesthetics in Science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
FIGURE ONE
THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SCIENTIFIC DIVERSITY, COMMUNICATION/INTEGRATION, AND MAKING MAJOR DISCOVERIES
Communication
and Social
Integration
among
Laboratories
Cognitive Distance
Scientific Diversity
in Laboratories
Number of
Major Breakthroughs
in Biomedical Science
in an Organization
LOW
HIGH
HIGH
FIGURE TWO
VARIATIONS IN THE EXPOSURE TO AND INTEGRATION OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY
HIGH
HIGH
LOW
LOW
A
B
C
D
Exposure to Cultural Diversity
Integration of Cultural Diversity
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