Republic of India Livelihoods in intermediate towns

3.3: Operationalizing ‘Non-farm’ Activity: For the purpose of this study, we treated all those economic activities that did not involve direct employment in agriculture, i.e. cultivation of land, as ‘non-farm’. We are aware of the significance of pluri-activities, viz. a person or household involved in more than one economic activity, including cultivation of land. In such cases, the dominant activity, providing the highest income has been treated as the main activity. Economic diversification appears to be an emerging feature not only for the settlements, but also for the households and for individual workers.

4. Changing Social Profile of the Settlements

4.1: Castes and Communities: As is the case with most rural settlements in India, the households across both the settlements are divided into a wide range of caste groups and communities (see Appendices 1 and 2; Table 3). In Bihar, the caste groups are administratively classified into five categories – first, the general category, belonging to the Hindu upper castes (Rajputs, Brahmins, Bhumihars and Kayasthas). These upper castes have traditionally been big landowners and part of the ruling establishments. They are spread across the state but each sub-region typically has one or two of these present prominently. The Brahmins and a few Rajputs have mostly been the big landowners in the district of Madhubani.

In the second rung of the hierarchy are the “backward” castes, who are further divided (officially) into two categories, the forward-Backwards or the OBC-II and the extremely backward classes (EBCs) or the OBC-I. Situated within the social hierarchy and according to the level of development, they are followed by two categories of the SCs, the Dalits and the Maha-Dalits. These categories closely mirror the traditional hierarchies and they have also come to be used in local and state level development practices. While the categories of OBC and SC are also used at the national level, their sub-classification has evolved locally, at the state level, over the past two decades. The sub-communities within these categories and their ranks in the local social hierarchy at the field sites are as follows:

1. 
   Upper Castes: Brahmins, Rajputs, Kayastha.
   
2. 
   Backward Classes (OBC-II): Teli, Suri, Gupta, Sonar, Yadav, Kurmi, Kalwar
   
3. 
   Extremely Backward Classes or EBCs (OBC-I): Lehri, Halwai, Nai-Hazam, Badhai-Carpenter, Badai-Pan leaf grower, Mallah, Dhanuk-Mandal, Kumhar-Potters.
   
4. 
   Dalits (SC): Paswan
   
5. 
   Maha- Dalits (SC): Dom, Chaupal, Musahar Pasi, Dhobi and Mochi/Chamar.
   

Altogether, the categories of OBCs and SCs have many communities listed in Bihar but not all of them live in these villages. Bihar has 131 communities listed as OBCs and they make for around 65 per cent of the total state population. Similarly, the state has a total of 22 communities listed as Scheduled Castes who make for around 15 percent of its total population. Of these 21 (with the exception of Paswan) are listed as Maha-Dalits, for whom the state government has designed special development provisions.

The two settlements also have a substantial Muslim population. Much like the other categories, Muslims too are internally divided and differentiated, including on caste lines. A substantial proportion of them are also included in the OBC list.

Table 3: Castes and Communities in Satghara and Bhagwatipur (app. Household numbers)
Name of Caste/ Communities	Satghara	Bhagwatipur
Rajput	350	40
Suri	300	60
Muslim	350	500
Brahman (Mahapatra)	175	250
Sonar	50
Dhanuk	80	75
Mallah (Sahni)	150	500
Keot	50	20
Hazam/Nai	40	30
Teli	30	20
Kumhar	20	40
Chamar / Ram (SC)	70	45
Dusad / Paswan (SC)	150	30
Dom (SC)	30
Bhangi (SC)	10
Dhobi (SC)	50	15
Marwari	15
Halwai (Kanu)	75	25
Yadav		65
Badhai	10	20
Khatbey (SC)		200
Bhumihar		10
Musahar (SC)		35
Total (app)	2005	1980

Caste based communities mostly live in their own localities, known as tolas or paras. The tolas are also named after the titles of the community. While some localities do have a mixed-caste inhabitant population, they are few. This was particularly the case with Dalit and Muslim localities. Even among Dalit localities, caste differences were quite visible. For example, the Paswan tola would have almost only Paswans and the Mallah tolas, only Mallahs. These caste/community tolas also reflect the level of economic well being of the social category. We did not see any “secular” locality in any of the two settlements (for details see Appendix 3).

For operational purposes and data analysis on a subject like non-farm activity, we divide the available communities into five categories: the traditional Hindu upper castes, the trading castes (most of whom are listed in the OBC-II category), other OBCs, Scheduled Castes and the Muslims. Wherever required, we have also used women as a separate category of analysis.