1. Introduction: 1
1.2: Non-farm Economy in Contemporary Bihar: 2
1.3: Study and the Research Questions: 3
2. Historical Context of the Changing Rural Economy of Bihar 5
2.1: Introduction: 5
2.2: Broad trends in the non-farm economy of India: 7
2.3: Literature on non-farm Economy: 7
2.4: Social and Economic Change and the Demographics of Rural-Urban: 10
2.5: Trends in the non-farm economy of Bihar: 12
2.6: Beyond Agriculture: Diversification and Migration: 13
3. The Fieldwork: 15
3.1: Field-sites: 16
3.2: Data Collection: 18
3.3: Operationalizing ‘Non-farm’ Activity: 20
4. Changing Social Profile of the Settlements: 21
4.1: Castes and Communities: 21
4.2: Agriculture and Its Social Framework in the two Settlements: 23
4.3: Decline of “Semi-feudal” Patriarch: 25
5. Mapping the Non-farm Economy: 29
5.1: Listing the Activities: 29
5.2: The Survey: 31
5.3: Nature of Ownership of Non-farm Activity: 32
5.4: How Old Are They?: 33
5.5: Communities and Non-farm Occupations: 33
5.6: Women in the Non-Farm Economy: 37
6. Migration and the Non-farm Economy: 42
6.1: The Context: 42
6.2: Remittance Economy: 43
6.3: Experience of Migration: 45
6.4: Migration and Networks: 48
6.5: Migration, Women and Agriculture: 49
7. Mobility and the Non Farm Economy: 54
7.1. Where Do They Come From?: 54
8. Motivations Sources of Funding and Income: 56
8.1: Motivations: 56
8.2. Investments and Sources of Funding: 58
8.3: Incomes from Non-farm Activity: 60
9. Growing Non-farm Economy, Persisting Rural and Urban Aspirations 61
9.1: Absent Urban?: 61
9.2: Work and Economic Life: 62
9.3: Education: 64
9.4: Private Education: 65
9.5: Caste, Education and Aspirations: 67
10. Social Dynamics of Rural Non-farm Economy: Concluding Comments 70
11. Policy Implications of
Appendices 73
Appendix 1: Comprehensive List of Non-Farm Activities and corresponding practicing caste and religion based communities. 73
Appendix 2: Descriptive Accounts of Non-farm Occupations 75
2.1: Drivery and Transport: 75
2.1.1: Rajnagar Railway station, Satghara and Autorickshaw stand, Bhagwatipur: 75
2.1.2: Taxi stand, Madhubani, towards Bhagwatipur: 76
2.1.3: Madhubani Bus Stand: 77
2.2. Traditional Occupations: 78
2.2.1: Bangle making and selling, Lehri community, Bhagwatipur: 78
2.2.2: Madhubani Paintings: 79
2.2.3: Jewelry and Money Lending: 80
2.2.4: Carpenter (Badhai): 82
2.2.5: Tailoring (Darzi): 83
2.2.6. Barbers (Nai): 83
2.2.7: Butcher (Kasai): 85
2.2.8: Cobbler (Mochi): 86
2.2.9: Paan Sellers (Barai): 86
2.2.10: Washerman (Dhobi): 86
2.2.11: Puffed Rice and Sattu (Bhuja and Sattu: Halwai): 87
2.2.12: Bidi Makers: 87
2.3: New activities in the NFE: 88
2.3.1: Garment Retail Shops: 88
2.3.2: Construction Material and Hardware: 88
2.3.3: Items for storage: 89
2.3.4: Mobile Sale and Repair Shops: 89
2.3.5: Medicine Store: 91
2.3.6: Digital photography studios: 92
2.3.7: Cyber cafes and photo-state: 92
2.3.8: Computer Service Centre: 92
2.3.9: Tent house: 93
2.3.10: Beauty Parlour, Bhagwatipur: 93
2.3.11: Small vendors, Bhagwatipur: 94
2.3.12: Boutique: 95
Appendix 3 Case Studies: Community and Caste based settlements 97
3.1: Muslim Fakir Tola, Satghara: 97
3.2: Muslim Tola, Bhagwatipur: 98
3.3: Mallah Tola, Bhagwatipur: 99
3.4: Badhai Tola, Bhagwatipur: 101
3.5: Brahmin Tola, Nahar (Bhagwatipur): 102
3.6: Dom Tola, Satghara: 103
Appendix 4: 106
4.1: MGNREGA and Public Welfare Programmes: 106
4.2: Banks and Financial Institutions: 107
Appendix 5: Settlement Schedule: 108
Appendix 6: Non-farm Occupation / Activity Profile Schedule: 113
References: 115
List of Tables:
Table 1: Non-Farm Workers in Bihar and India (in Millions) 3
Table 2: Age Profile of the Respondents 19
Table 3: Castes and Communities in Satghara and Bhagwatipur 22
Table 4: Classification of non-farm activities 30
Table 5: Social Profile of Respondents in the Sample-survey 32
Table 6: Nature of Non-Farm Activity 32
Table 7: Building Ownership and Caste 33
Table 8: Year of Starting Non-farm Activity 34
Table 9: NFE Categories and Caste / Communities 35
Table 10: Social Profile of Respondents in the Sample-survey 36
Table 11: Gender and Participation in Non-Farm Activity 37
Table 12: Gender and Monthly Income 40
Table 13: Gender and Caste 41
Table 14: Migration Status across Social Groups among the Respondents 45
Table 15: Age and Migration 47
Table 16: Age and Migrant's Destination 48
Table 17: Occupational Mobility across two generations 54
Table 18: Father's Occupation across social categories 55
Table 19: Caste Category and Motivation for Starting Current Activity 57
Table 20: Amount Invested at the time of establishment 58
Table 21: Caste and Source of Funding for NFE 59
Table 22: Caste and Monthly Income 60
Table 23: Parental Preference of Occupation for their Children 63
Table 24: Education Qualifications of Different Categories of Respondents 68
List of Boxes
Box 1: Village-wise List of non-farm activities 29
Box 2: Beauty Parlour and Female Enterprise in Bhagwatipur 39
Box 3: Parvati Progressive School 67
Box 4: Case Study: In Transition – The Story of handlooms 89
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