Searching For Common Roots This is a personal view on a connection between Polynesia

Samoan Proverb: "A canoe can truly be tested in deep waters."
1. The common sky
What do Polynesians know about astronomy?
It makes sense to talk about astronomy because of the importance of celestial object to our ancient ancestors. The celestial objects seen at night have inspired Polynesians and other societies throughout history. They were the sources of superstition, mysticism, and religion. The similarity of these nightly views at different points across the globe poses some challenges when differentiating distant societies. It's possible for an astral phenomenon to be treated culturally the same by people living far apart. The moon, for instance, could be worshipped for very similar reasons at opposite sides of the world. However, the odds of both societies having similar names with those traditions and objects would be minimal to none. In cases where we do find strong similarities, the likelihood that the parallel was through people contact would be the most probable reason.

William Sullivan did an amazing job describing the Andean societies in his book. I was intrigued by Sullivan's writing which gave me picture of something familiar to what I knew growing up in American Samoa. Sillivan's topic was the Andean people, but his book led me to traditions that tie his subject to Polynesians and gave me another way of looking at the Polynesian migration issue. Sullivan's book became an important piece of information in my search to unveil the meanings of Samoan words and traditions that I'm familiar with. I found several other good books about pre-Columbian Americans, which I eagerly read using the framework Sullivan had introduced me to: pre-Columbian astronomy. I unexpectedly found a way to find deeper meanings with elements of the Samoan culture that I once dismissed as too obscured to examine.

George Stuart of the National Geographic's Society said this about Sullivan's book: "I found the work extraordinarily rewarding by virtue of its careful integration of material from disparate worlds of archaeological knowledge and traditional mythology of the Andean region. Most important, however - and something that I was hardly prepared for - was the innovative way Sullivan has opened up a whole new approach to our knowledge of the past...I hope that all those interested in any aspect of past human culture read this excellent work."

Sullivan (1) said the following about Andean astronomy:

"According to the weight of Andean scholarship at that time, the only planet for which the Incas had a name was Venus. Where were the other 'gods' (planets)? Having read what I thought were the definitive treatments of the etymologies of the names of various Andean gods, including the old, bearded god Wiraqocha, who carried a staff, I thought it pointless to search for clues in that direction. Instead, I looked up the most frequently used alternative title for Wiraqocha: 'Tunapa'. Within 90 seconds of opening a conquest-era Quechua dictionary, I learned that this word means 'he who carries the mill'. I had found the Andean Saturn. From there, I was able to work out and rigorously test the identity of all five planetary gods in the Inca pantheon. The importance of all this is that the characteristics of the Andean planetary gods are virtually identical to those of the planetary gods of Greece, Rome, Scandinavia, the Hopi, the Polynesians and so on. For the Incas, Saturn was the old, bearded god who carried a staff; Venus was a beautiful woman with disheveled hair; Jupiter was the king; Mars the god of war; and Mercury the messenger. To me, the single, most urgent question raised by this research is not how this idiosyncratic way of looking at the sky was carried to every corner of our globe, but why it was so readily accepted everywhere."

If there are are ways to examine the connections between pre-Columbian America and Polynesia, one of them would be looking at how these societies utilize celestial objects in their cultures. The sun, moon, and the stars with the Milky Way in the background are seen equally and revered by people in both locations.

2. Ancient Americans were great astronomers.

The lives of pre-European Americans were guided by priest-astronomers who exploit the cycles of planets and stars. They closely observed the heavens for patterns and pieced together stories and visions that held their communities together. The priests made sure their earthly politics was tied to the sky, and they needed to be experts in both.

"In 1989, while working at Cranfield University, I successfully calculated the duration of the long-term sunspot cycle. The university computer, one of the most powerful in the world, had predicted that the sun would reverse its magnetic field every 3,740 years (1,366,040 days). I was later astonished to learn at the Maya of Mexico worshipped a number virtually identical to this (1,366,560), more than a thousand years ago in the jungles of Mexico. It soon became clear that this ancient sun-worshiping civilization knew more about the magnetic cycles of the sun than we did in 1989." (Maurice Cotterell, "The Lost Tomb of Viracocha")

"The third glyph is the syllable 'na' meaning "house" and refers to yet another role he (Kinich Ahau) plays as Lord of the Milky Way; symbolizing this he sometimes wears a conch shell. Our solar system of course is in the Milky Way, which is, like the conch shell, in the shape of a spiral. This has immense implications because our understanding of this did not come until the late eighteenth century, long after the development of astronomy as a science." (Martin Brennan, "The Hidden Maya", pp.22-23)

The words in the Solo suggest that the author(s) knew something about the heavenly objects much like the pre-Columbian astronomers. The Solo appears to suggest that whoever authored it understood the sky objects in great details. For example is the quote below from the Solo suggesting Polynesians knew that the moon doesn't produce light, but receives its light from the Sun. The verse hinted that the Sun is poised like a statue, changeless and gives out beams of light. Whether or not ancient Polynesians truly understood the technical working of the solar system as much as the Andean priests, I think the information was something they inherent which they diligently recited through the generations.

"On it the Moon's desired light looks down; The Sun, like statue, changeless found, (Darts his refulgent beams around)." (Solo ole Va)

It's inconceivable to think that a primitive people would have a deeper knowledge of the moon and sun before the 'age of Science'. The Solo conveys something that we wouldn't normally attribute to Polynesians who were a yard away from the Stone Age when the Europeans first met them.

The conventional view that was taught in Europe before Nicolaus Copernicus was that the Sun moves around the Earth. Copernicus introduced the sun-centered solar system to the 14th century Europe. The above quote from the Solo references a stationary sun like what Copernicus did in Europe. It says that the Sun's beam lights up the Moon and other planets. Could this be?

"But fly now and then to thy group in the west; to measure and compare the space which lies between, from place to place." (Solo ole Va)

The calendars uncovered from Mesoamerican ruins are fascinating. Some experts say they are precision timepieces used by the priests. Their society depended on the correct placement of dates to plan harvest, make war, etc. The above statement from the Solo isn't referring to the measurement of distance, but it's more likely a measurement of time: the sundial. The Sun flies west and its orbit measured time.

"'O Tagaloa, who sittest at the helm (of affairs), Tagaloa's (bird, the Tuli) desires to rest; Tuli from the ocean must rest in the heavens;" (Solo ole Va)

Along the same latitudinal region, the ancient Andean people and Samoans had the same view of the Southern night sky. They saw the same objects moving across the sky and the familiar Milky Way in the background. These objects were important in the Andes for ceremonial purposes. In the central Pacific, the nightly objects acquired a new purpose - navigation. As the people who left pre-Columbian America moved westward, some of their words and ideas took on new meaning as they settled in their new home. However, some concepts are hard to get rid, either because of their importance or lack of substitutes. The following are some of the things that I think survived into the new society.

3. Celestial Fox

According to Sullivan, ancient Andean astronomy refers to a "black-cloud constellation, the celestial Fox. The Fox extends eastward into Sagittarius from the hindquarters of the Llama. As a contemporary Aymara-speaker from Bolivia said in commenting on a folktale about Fox 'The fox is in the sky, in the river, he always follows the llama'..." (Sullivan, p.41)

The Polynesians probably used the same knowledge of the sky as their ancestors. In the case of the dark constellation visible in the southern sky, it remained an important object to the voyaging people. There is a similarity between the words for dog in Samoan ("uli") and Mayan ("tzul"). The Samoan word "uli" translates to three words - "steering" or "guiding", "black", and "dog"? I've wondered why the Samoan word "uli" has so many meanings. This clearly in my view is a deliberate adaptation of the Andean myth in Polynesia, which refers to the dark sections of the Milky Way galaxy visually animated as a fox chasing after a llama. I think this is a strong proof of the connection between the two societies.

The South American words for the color purple (royal color in the Andes) is "k'ulli" in the Aymara language, and "kulli" in the Quechua language. We find in Samoan tradition concepts that are tied to the dark celestial myth, but are rehashed differently. However, the basic Andean astronomical idea remains intact. Being that the fox follows the celestial llama, we can deduce that ancient Polynesians knew of the Andean story and used it.

The Samoan word "tuli" (chase) also illustrates this connection to the celestial fox and llama myth of the Andes. In the Samoan myths, "Tuli" is the name of Tagaloa's bird.

4. Grammar - "ma" & "la"

I don't profess any linguistic expertise in Polynesian and Native American languages, but the little information I came across shows some interesting similarities that are shown in some words and grammatical rules between these languages. These like-words (Appendix A) and grammatical rules strongly suggest a connection between the Polynesians and Native Americans.

i. La

"'La' is the particle denoting totality." (Alfred M. Tozzer, A Maya
Grammar, p.98)

This rule also exists in the Samoan language and is exemplified by the following words.

a. "laau" - tree ("au" is a tree branch)

b. "lai'titi" - smallness ("i'titi" is little)

c. "lala'i" - come as a group ("la'i" - come)

ii. Ma

"The adverbial particles are very numerous in Maya. No attempt has been made to exhaust the list. The most important are as follows: NEGATION: This is shown by the particle ma, which precedes the nominal pronoun and comes immediately before the verb when the verbal pronoun is used." (Alfred M. Tozzer, A Maya Grammar, p.104)

Interestingly, this Mayan grammatical rule is found in the Samoan language. The Samoan "ma" as it exists today isn't the same as the Mayan word. The Samoan "ma" is the conjunction "and". However, there are several Samoan words which appear to confirm a common expect of the two languages in respect to grammatical "ma".

The Samoan language uses "ma" the same way to create opposite words. This is exemplified in the following words.

a. "malosi" - strong ("losi" is untidy, unorganized)

b. "masina" - moon ("sina" is white, gray-hair, brightness of sun)

c. "mafua - origin ("fua" is fruit)

d. "malala - charcoal ("lala" is tree branch)

e. "manino" - clear ("nino" is a variant of "nimo" which means disappear)

f. "maulu" - falling ("ulu" is head or upper)

There are two Samoan words for 'falling' - "pa'u" and "maulu".

iii. Malamalama

Another interesting application of the grammatical rule "ma" is found in the word "malamalama".  The word "lama" in Samoan means entrapment; "lamalama" is the verb form. Lama is also fishing at night using lamps. Lama is also the name of a plant that is used by Samoans to make "vaiuli" - the dark ink used in tattooing. I think "lama" in "malamalama" (enlighten or brightness) is a root word that's meaningful only when taking into context the Andean Llama and Fox myth. If the Polynesians used the same celestial objects as the ancient Andean people, the Llama and the fox were common concepts to both people. A myth based on an animal that grazed the Andes became a concept in Polynesia.

"Holguin lists 'Haullpayhuana or "ninanina." The diligent worker, ardent and animated like fire.' The synonym "ninanina" comes from the Quechua word for fire, "nina." It is not easy to combine the characteristics of "fieriness," and diligence, but this has always been understood as the function of Saturn, bringer of fire, but also a god systematically sweeping through the ecliptic plane every thirty years, meting out the arts of civilization - or castigation - as the situation merits." (Sallivan, p.100)

There are words in the Samoan language that indicate root ideas from both pre-Columbian priests and Hindu priests from the west. From the east on the American side are the Samoan words "ninia" (intense brightness) and "sina" (whiteness). These words fit the description of "nina" in the quote above. From the west are the Samoan words "afi" (fire) and "afiafi" (evening), which in my opinion were adopted from the Hindu god Angi (god of fire).

There were other lesser gods in the Samoan pantheon besides "Tagaloa" which were represented by animals just like in pre-Columbian America.

"Each chief and almost every man...had his god, or "aitu", the representations of which he would consider sacred, and treat...with the utmost respect. These aitu, which were commonly incarnate in some bird, fish, reptile, or insect, were looked upon, however, as inferior deities..." (Freeman, p.176)

If the Samoan word "lama" is rooted in the dark celestial object, known in South America as the Celestial Llama, then a reasonable conclusion would be that they came from the same mind. Since there are no Llamas in the Pacific, the root idea containing the Llama must originated from the priest-astronomers of pre-Columbia America.

I'm sure there are many examples of Samoan words that fit these grammatical rules.
5. Hanai-i-ka-malama
The Hawaiian name for the Southern Cross is "Hanai-i-ka-malama." It’s very likely that this word is also derived from the ancient Andean celestial Fox and the Llama story. On the southern sky, the path within the Milky Way of the dark celestial Fox and Llama cuts along the position of the Southern Cross. The Hawaiian dictionary has descriptions for the words "hanai", "i ka" and "malama". The word "hanai" is "to feed". The phrase "i ka" is "on the", and the phrase "malama" is to "take care of".
I think "malama" in the "Hanai-i-ka-malama" is the equivalent to the Samoan "malama" (clear, shiny, open) and "malamalama" (brightness). If that is correct, the Hawaiian name for the Southern Cross could simply mean "feed on the bright object" or "focus on the bright star" for guide. Its root idea goes back to the Andean myth - the celestial Fox and Llama.
6. The Twins
More shared astronomical concepts:
"...the Mayan day Chiccan corresponds to Proto-Polynesian Filo, and Chicchan means 'twisted serpent'; ...Filo, which means "twist, thread," is the name of the Polynesian god of thieves...In Samoa, Filo is a name given to Castor (one of the stars of the constellation of the Twins or Gemini)..." (Sullivan, p.184)
"Leaving aside the suggestion that the word illa could (as with the Spanish word for thread, hilo, and the English "filament") be cognate with Filo (Quechua and Aymara lacking a sound for f), the motif of "twisted threads" figures prominently in the logic of Andean notions about twins." (p.185)
7. Nafa
“The Quechua verb "capay" refers to a means of measurement: "Kapay" - To measure by palms; Kapa. Palm. The hand extended and the measure.” (Sullivan, p.120)
Reaching for something by extending your arms is “tapa” in Samoan. It’s also used figuratively as in “tapa mai mata” - pay attention here. Another Samoan word derived from arm extending is “nafa”, which is a unit of measurement based on extended arms and is heard a lot around house constructions. “Nafa” also means genealogy in Samoan. Could the Mayan word for house “na” be the root of the Samoan “nafa”?
8. Ola, ato

The Samoan word “ola” to me is possibly related to the Spanish "olla" that's commonly used by Native Americans. Whether the Spaniards introduced the "olla" to the Americas or developed independently by the natives, the present of “ola” in the Samoan language is puzzling to me. My problem is trying to determine if the Spanish "olla" is the source of the Samoan "ola". The Spaniards traveled extensively throughout the Pacific and their "olla" was probably adapted into the Samoan dialect. The Samoan "ola" has two meanings - basket and "life" or "to live." Why? If the Samoans adopted the Spanish "olla", why was it applied to two entirely different things?

Jaguar Myth (Amuesha - Andes):

"...The Twins in her womb, Sun and Moon, escape and hide at the bottom of the river. Grandmother Jaguar says that she is obligated to raise the Twins, because she killed their mother. Soon, Grandmother Jaguar tires of the pair and, preparing to eat them, boils water in a large pot (olla). The Twins cause her to fall asleep, dismember her, and put her in the "olla." When the other jaguars - relatives of the Grandmother - arrive to eat, the Twins hide in the roof of the little house, and when the jaguars become suspicious, the Twins set fire to the house and escape across the river, cutting a "bridge" behind them, whereby nearly all the jaguars plunge to their death." (Sullivan, p.358)

One of the many stories my grandmother told was a Samoa story about a forest witch and disobedient twins. The story starts out when a couple hid their twins in a basket and hung it on the upper frame of their house. They instructed them not to answer calls from anyone while they are away. With the parents gone, a forest witch came to the house and summoned the twins by name. Despite their parent's strict advice, the twins answered the witch's call and were discovered. The forest witch took them to her forest home and prepared an "umu" (fire) to cook them. Luckily, the parents arrived in time to rescue them and burned the witch in her own fire.

English          \Polynesia                      \Americas                       \Other



Sack               \-           \-                               \pa-tor (Egyptian)
Basket           \ola, ato (Samoan)       \xak (Quechua)              \-
to live (life)   \ola (Samoan)               \gvhnoda (Cherokee)     \-
happiness      \-                                     \oolal (Quechua)       \-
heart              \fatu (Samoan)             \ool (Quechua)             \abu (Egyptian)

I think the answer to my question is found in the words listed above. The Samoan “ato” and the new Spanish “ola” are words for basket in Samoa. The Samoan “ola” that means ‘life’ is pre-Spanish, which I think shares common root with the pre-Columbia myth.

9. Ula

The word "ula" has several meanings in the Samoan language: a necklace of red beads or flowers, a lobster, and the color red. Could the root of this word seen in the heaven?

"The Quechua word used in the text for "star" is "coyllur," the same word used in the name of Venus, "chasca coyllur." It is therefore of some interest to note that the "star" mentioned in the Huarochiri text are said to "move" as they circle a redundant description - unless "they" are planets, wandering the ecliptic against the background of fixed stars. "They call the stars that shine, moving about as they circle [Quechua muyo muyolla] 'Pichcaconqui.'" (Sullivan, p.89)

Clearly for me, “ula” originated from the pre-Columbian astronomy.
10. Atua
Does the Samoan word "atua" (god) have any root to the astronomy of ancient pre-Columbia South America? I think it does.
"...the Quechua name for the planet Saturn is "haucha" ... Just as in Greek and Vedic myth, knowledge of the physical "behavior" of the planet Saturn led to the imagery of "god" who imparted motion and the measures of time to the cosmos." (Sullivan, p.90)
[Huarochiri] ...their priesthood: "llacuas," or "sacrificers of llamas." (p.222)

11. Va'a (Vaka in other parts of Polynesia)          


"...the notion of the lineage "wakas" promoted the principles of peaceful unity-in-diversity among the various highland tribes by virtue of each tribe's descent from a common class of objects created by Wiraqocha. Likewise the doctrine of the "pacarina," or place of 'dawning', whence emerged each tribal lineage waka, established the right of each ethnic group to its tribal land. (Sullivan, p.236) ...they were animals...I had been so long accustomed to relating the formulation 'stars are animals' to the behavior of animals in myths, that I had never thought to apply it the lineage wakas...The notion that each species of animal had a celestial prototype responsible for the welfare of that species is a well-established fact of Andean ethnography." (p.237)

Sullivan's explanation for "waka" is poignant here since both the 'Solo ole Va' and pre-Columbian traditions see the night sky, the Milky Way galaxy, as a great ocean. The stars were vessels (va'a in Samoan) that they are spiritually connected to. As a side note, "aiga" (pronounced ahinga) is family in Samoan.

"The waters in their place appear; The sea, too, occupies its sphere; The heaven ascends, the sky is clear." (Solo ole Va)

Concerning the Samoan pagan religion, Freeman wrote that "...a spirit medium was said to be a 'taula aitu,' or anchor of the spirits, or alternatively a va'a aitu, or vessel of the spirits..." (Freeman, p.177)

The University of Auckland (NZ) Library described its name (Te Tumu Herenga) the following way:

"Te Tumu Herenga, the Library's name gifted by the University's kuia Dr Merimeri Penfold, means "the chief tethering post"; when referring to a person it means a "high ranking leader". Its poetic meaning refers to the waka, or vessels, for which it is the main binding point, the unmovable mainstay to which they are tethered. To native Maori speakers there is a very strong association between "herenga" (bond) and "waka". The word "tumu" emphasizes the strength of the bond, and its chiefly status. Waka can contain very precious things and very mundane things as well, reflecting the wide range of information Libraries contain. Waka are inherently linked to people on their different journeys. The vessel concept in essence captures many worlds, ancient, modern, in all disciplines, and the link, Te Tumu Herenga, to those worlds is the Library."
12. Aiga
"The deed of possession of tribal lands was sealed by each group's reference to its particular place of emergence - the cave, fountains, and so on - called 'pacarina,' literally "place of dawning." The very diversity of the tribes was thus portrayed as springing from an underlying principle of unity." (Sullivan, p.24)
"Sarmiento's account that 'Pacariatambo,' which had been represented in the Chronicles written before this time as something of a generic 'place of origin' (pagarina), and whose location was not precisely defined, became concretized to a specific town and its environs to the south of the valley of Cuzco." (Gary Urton, "The History Of A Myth - Pacariqtambo and the Origin of the Inkas", University of Texas Press, Austin, 1990, p.19)
I feel strongly that the Samoan word "aiga" (family) is related to the "pacarina" of the Incas.
Inca: PACARINA (pac-A-r-INA)

Samoa: AIGA (pronounced: A-INGA)

13. Uli
There are two Samoan words for dog – “maile” and "uli". The Samoan word for dark is “uliuli”. “Uli” is also the Samoan word for steering. To me it’s very evident that the word “uli” comes straight out of Andean astronomical traditions of the dark Celestial Lama and Fox.
English \Egypt \Samoa \America
chariot \urit \- \-

steer \- \uli \-

darkness \kekui \po'uli'uli, pogisa \-

purple \- \- \kulli (Guasano), k'ulli (Aymara)

dark \- \uli'uli \-

dog \uher, au \taifau, uli, maile \tzul (Maya)

14. Uila
“The most important celestial deity in local cosmology was the masculine god of thunder and lightning - 'Illapa'" (Sullivan, p.171)
"The ancient Quechua- and Aymara-speaking highlanders distinguished among three phenomena: lighting (illapa/illapu), thunder (cunununu/kakcha), and objects hurled to earth by the god. The word for the concept of the bolt - sometimes also called "thunderstone" in English - was "illa," from which the word lightning derives. Thus the sling of the storm god was the bolt or thunderstone." (Sullivan, p.174)
Similar to Aymara (South America),
The Samoan word for lightning is "uila", which is viewed in pagan Samoa as attributing to Tagaloa's wrath. The Samoan words "tata" (pounding) and "tomumu" (grumble) refer to the sound of thunder.
"Tata fai'titili" (roaring thunder or pounding thunders) is a phrase that signifies Tagaloa's thunderous wrath. The Samoan words "pa" (to burst) and "ta" (to strike) are often used when talking about the power of thunder and lighting. When lightning strike and thunder echoes across the sky during a thunder storm, you will hear people saying "tomumu fai'titili" (grumbling thunder).
"The rafter-breaking god came down, (With wrath inflamed and angry frown;) Alas! My building all complete is scattered in confusion great." (Solo ole Va)
"Again, the thunder and lightning that were once the awesome attributes of Tagaloa have been transferred to Jehovah, to whom, is one of their hymns, Samoans sing: Your voice, Jehovah, that I hear in the thunder clap, fills me with fear; The lighting is also yours and conveys your tidings." (Freeman, p.187)
15. Malae
"So when the nether, quadrangular grindstone, "maray" (standing for the four-cornered "celestial earth"), was "turned over," after the flood of A.D. 650, the Toad quite "naturally" jumped to the lowest" topos available - that is, an astronomical position marking the earth's southern pole of rotation...The other "earthly" artifact destroyed in the tale is the house of the "false god," that is, the architectural analogue of the "maras", the world house, running from tropic to tropic. (Sallivan, p.111-112)
In the center of a Samoan village is a "malae". It’s a field for holding special activities. It‘s similar to the sacred "marae" in other parts of Polynesia where pagan gods were worshipped. The word "malae" is also found in Indonesia (East Timor), but its meaning is different. “Malae” means foreign in Southeast Asia. Did a new group moved into Southeast Asia and were called “malae” by the natives? The newcomers might have told their new neighbors they came from the "maray" - the celestial place.
16. Luga, Mala, Uta
In Andean astronomy, "Hunan Pacha" was the heavens directly above the terrestrial plane, and "Uku Pacha" was the underworld directly below the world of mankind. What I see here is the possibility that the Samoan words "luga" (upper) and "uta" (backward) have roots in those Andean astronomical terms – “hunan” and “uku”.
"At about six thousand feet, where the verticality of the Andes gives way to the gentler

'montana', it is possible to clear land for cultivation of fruits and coca. Above fourteen thousand feet, on the treeless 'puna', a kind of dune grass called 'icchu' supports the flocks of llamas and alpacas." (Sullivan, p.22)

"The relationship of an upper "male" cross to a lower "female" cross is the same relationship as the upper "male" grindstone (tuna), to the lower "female" grindstone (maras). (Sullivan, p.104)
I’m incline to say that the Samoan words "luga" [pronounced "lunga"] (upper) and "mala" (calamity; also refers to a feminine person) can be found in this Andean myth.
Also, the Samoan word "mauga" [pronounced "maunga"] for mountain, could be a variant of the Andean "montana" or "manu." The Samoan word "i'u" (pulling weed) could have derived from the Andean “icchu”. The word “i’u” also means graduated (or elevated) from some position.
17. Toa
"To the present day, Andean peasants consider the hail-cat, "ccoa" - "seen with hail running out of his eyes" - a beast to be reckoned with." (Sullivan, p.139)
Could this menacing Andean icon be the root for the "toa" (brave) in central Polynesia? A similarity is also seen in the Mayan word "toh" (puma). "Toa" is also the Samoan word for rooster.
18. To'a
"The terrestrial opposite of the 'June Solstice Mountain,' is a body of water labeled 'mamaqocha', 'mother sea (or lake),' connected to a 'puquio', or 'spring,' found on the rainy-season...The Quechua-speakers and Aymara words for 'lake' and 'sea' are the same, qocha." (Salivan, p.63)
The Samoan word "to'a" describes something that saddles to a lower position. It also means calm or low tides. It is common to hear Samoans say "to'a i lalo" (saddle down) instead of "nofo i lalo" (sit down).
19. Palagi
The Samoan name for Europeans is "Palagi." It is a word made up to two words - "pa" (break or burst, and fence) and "lagi" (sky). I think that this reference to Europeans parallels the way the Incas referred to the Spaniards on their initial contact. The Inca legend, according to William Sullivan, explains that Wiraqocha Inca predicted that he would return in 1000 years, in which time their world will end. The Spaniards showed up in 1532 - about 1000 years from the day the prophecy was supposedly made. The Incas referred to Spaniards as Wiraqocha. Is it possible that the Samoans, at the sight of white Europeans, were reminded of something similar, proclaimed - "ua pa lagi" (the heaven openth)? And like the Incas who met the Spaniards, the Samoans' initial impression was that the white Europeans were gods who came down to fulfill the prophecy.
On the other hand, “palagi” could mean a person returning from the spiritual world - thus establishing a connection between Egypt and Polynesia through the pre-Columbian tradition. The Egyptian concept of "ba" means the spirit or soul of a person. The "ba" describes a person's personality, which enters a person's body at birth and leaves at death. If "pa" in “palagi” indicates a meaning similar to the Egyptian "ba" (spirit), then “palagi” would thus be a 'heavenly person'. Another Egyptian meaning of "pa" is to fly. Using that meaning would make “palagi” to mean “a person who flew from heaven” - the traditional meaning is intact.
It’s interesting to note the Samoan word “paolo” which refers to the shade a cloud makes on a clear sunny day. “Pa” is the word for ‘burst’ or ‘wall’, and “olo” is the word for ‘hole’ or ‘Cave’. “Paolo” literally means ‘walled off cave’ or ‘closed cave’. Why is something that happens in the sky named using something that’s below ground? Could the meaning of the word “paolo” ‘flying cave’ – a hole in the sky?
Incidentally, the Maori (New Zealand indigenous people) word "Pakeha" describes non-Maori residents of New Zealand. The Maori word for pale and white is "teatea". The Samoan word for albino (light colored) is "te'tea", and the Samoan word for sky is "va'teatea". I think that the Maori word "keha" is a derivative of "teatea". I also think that those words clearly show a parallel between the Maori "Pakeha" and the Samoan "Palagi" described above.
"...the Quechua 'world' - 'pacha'..." (p. 28) "According to the indigenous view at the time of the Conquest, the cosmos was composed of three domains: 'hanaq pacha', literally 'the world above'; 'kau pacha', 'this world'; and 'ukhu pacha', 'the world below.' Likewise the same notions were held by Aymara-speakers of the Lake Titicaca region, who also distinguished among three worlds, also called pacha(s): 'alakh pacha', 'aca pacha', and 'mancca pacha', again literally meaning 'the world above,' this world,' and 'the world below.'" (Sullivan, p.56)
It may very well be that the word “palagi” was a conceptual application of an indigenous pre-Columbian astronomical idea. Some may attribute “palagi” to the Europeans massive cannons, but I haven’t read of any first encounter, between Samoans and Europeans, where cannons were shot. Sullivan explained that the event in the Inca prophecy is based on the junction of the planets Saturn and Jupiter - which coincides with the time of the Inca "doom" prophecy. This, I believe, was the basis for the insinuation when white Europeans were first seen in Samoa and Peru.
20. Maliu maia
"In the pre-Columbian Andes, the Milky Way was styled a river ('mayu') or, less frequently, a road (nan). It was the route traveled by both the gods and the spirits of the dead in order to reach the world of the living." (Sullivan, p.49)
The Samoan phrase "maliu mai" beacons someone to come your way. It’s also a word for 'death' and 'to travel on a journey.' The Samoan word "nana'i" is walking with purpose, and came straight out of Andean astronomy.
21. Iuta, Oti
"...the word for a world-ending cataclysm, 'pachakuti', and a synonym listed by Holquin, pachaticra. The word 'kuti' means variously "to return, or turn back, whence one come"... (Sallivan, p.305)
The Samoan words 'iuta' (inland or mountain area) and 'oti' (dead) could also find roots in the language of Andean astronomers. In some North American tribes (Ute of Utah for example), the word 'uta' also refers to mountainous areas.
22. Uta (load/cargo/burden)
"The word hucha has several meanings, one of which is "sin," preferred by Duviols, another "business," as in "affairs," preferred by Zuidema. (Sullivan, p.308)
“...an image of a goddess carrying a burden must represent 'cuch(u)', the Yucatec for 'burden'. The unknown sign must then be 'chu'. So he proceeded. The last syllable of 'burden', chu, he found represented the first syllable of 'chu-ka-ah', 'captured'... (David Drew, The Lost Chronicles Of The Maya Kings, p.165)
The Samoan word "uta" means a "load" or "burden" to carry.
English \Egypt \Samoa \America

load/burden \- \uta \kuch (Mayan)

loaded boat \uha \- \-

to weigh \- \- \iyuta (Lakota)

test by weighing \uta \- \-

strength \uta \- \-

23. Tupu, Ali'i
"Manco Capac carried with him a scepter of gold, called 'tupayauri' by Pachakuti Yamqui, the same wooden staff, now miraculously transformed, that was given to Manco's father by Wiraqocha before the child's birth" (Sullivan, p.125) The tupayauri, defined by Holquin as "the royal sceptre, staff, royal insignia of the Inca," was the symbol of Imperial authority among the historical Incas. Tupa means royal in Quechua, while yauri is the Aymara word for copper. (p.127)
I can readily see the two Samoan words "tupu" (king) and "auro" (gold) in the Incas "tupayauri" Sullivan explains above. Also involves are the Polynesian words "ali'i" and "ariki." The staff symbolizes authority in Samoan traditions.
24. Pupuna
"First he fashioned all the villages. Just by speaking he made all the fields and finished the terraces with walls of fine masonry. As for the irrigation canals, he channeled them out from their sources just by tossing down a flower of a reed called 'pupuna'." (Sullivan, p.220)
The Samoan word “pupuna” means ‘to bubble as water’, ‘to boil’, and ‘to spring’.
25. Taula
"'Tauna'. Staff, pillar, post, architectural pier." (Sullivan, p.233)
Could this Quechua word be the source for the Samoan “taula” (to anchor)?
While searching for Hebrew words to compare with Samoan words, I came across the word “towldah” (to-led-aw). Towldah means generation. Somewhere else this word means 'source' or 'origin'. Is the Samoan “taula”, anchor, connected to this Hebrew word? I’m just asking.
26. Tama
"But what does 'camay' means? ...it labels a llama-shaped constellation [i.e., the black-cloud celestial Llama] the 'camac' (agentive form, 'camay-er') of llamas. On descending to earth, this constellation infuses a powerful generative essense of llama vitality, which causes earthly llamas to flourish. All things have their vitalizing prototypes or 'camac', including human groups; the 'camac' of a human group is usually its 'huaca' ['waka'] of origin." (Sullivan, The Secret of the Incas, p.239)
"Tama" is boy, and "teine" is girl in Samoan. It is common in the Samoan language to refer to a son as "tamatama," and daughter as "tamateine." The Samoan "tama," therefore, is a prefix that denotes progeny - a prototype.
27. Io
"Maui' was thirsty through his labor, and called to a bird, tieke (saddle-back) to bring him water; but the bird took no notice, and Maui' seized it and flung it from him. Now where he touched its back the feathers were all singed with the heat of his hand, and to this day the bird bears the mark of the displeasure of Maui'. He called a hihi (stitch-bird); but it disregarded his call, and Maui' cast it into the flames; and ever since this bird has been timid, and its breast has borne a yellow hue as of fire. The toutouwai (robin) next disregarded his wishes, so he set a white mark at the root of its bill. The tuneful kokako (Maori crow) flew by, and hearing Maui' call for water it brought it in its ears. As a reward Maui' pulled its legs, so that they were long, as they remain to this day." (Andersen, Myths and Legends of the Polynesians, p.200)
This Polynesian story is a typical classic hero myth similar to a Native American myth where its hero extended daylight. By lassoing the sun, Maui slowed the sun down so people can have more daylight to work in. The reference to the "four" birds resembles the way Native Americans use the number "four" in their myths. In the Maori version of the legend of Maui (Maui Ti'iti'i-a-Talaga in Samoa), the hero after defeating the Sun sought water from several birds. The crow was the only bird that offered him water, so Maui made its legs longer - Saturn's ring might appear that way to the author. I could see from the legend of Maui that the other birds represent the other planets. If this is correct, it's astonishing to see the relationship between the mentioning of each bird in the story to the location of each planet from the Sun. The story started when Maui defeated the Sun and moved outward, starting with Venus and ending with Saturn.
The Samoan "Iao" (Wattled Honeyeater) is a very noisy and conspicuously visible bird. I think that the word Iao is the root for the Samoan word "I'o", which means plant root, to cause, beginning, perching and pinnacle of a house. It might also be the root for "I'oga" (the ending). It’s very likely that “Iao” was the Samoan name for the planet Jupiter in times past - similar to the Hawaiians. The Samoan "Io" clearly indicates something of superior nature. The Samoan word "atua" (god), using information from Dr. Sullivan's book "The Secret of the Incas", is the name for the planet Saturn. I believe that "Atua" and "Iao" are Polynesian deities connected with the planets Saturn and Jupiter respectively.
In his article "Calendar Animals and Deities," (David) Kelly discusses the similarities between calendar lists from Eurasia, Polynesia, and Mesoamerican... Filo, which means "twist, thread," is the name of the Polynesian god of thieves, and Maori mythology make him the twin brother of Hua. In Samoa, Filo is a name given to Castor (one of the stars of the constellation of the Twins or Gemini) and among the Maoris Whiro (from Filo) was the name applied to the planet Mercury. The Greeks applied the name Apollo both to the planet Mercury and to the star Castor, while the Roman Mercurius, god of thieves, was also god of the planet Mercury. (Sullivan, The Secret of the Incas, p.184)
"...Venus, a planet closely associated with war in Maya culture." (Martin Brennan, The Hidden Maya, p.50)
"The second glyph is his nominal is Chak Ek, Great Star or Venus, implying that he is a harbinger of the Sun. His way is the moan, the horned screech owl..." (Martin Brennan, The Hidden Maya, p.176)
"Both myths project the notion of the 'destabilization' of the Milky Way through the imagery of the quail's ungainly flight. But whereas the Andean version capitalizes on the comic potential of the "lluthu", the Aztec version is relentless in its projection of the aura of doom." (Sullivan, p.276)
“Twelve Alligator now holds the staff of Venus, the Morning Star, the Bringer of Dawn. The possession of such objects confers status, authority, and the right to rule.” (Brennan, p. 67)
I’m willing to propose that the Samoan name for the planet Venus was "Lulu". Lulu is the word for both earthquake and owl. The owl is the symbol of Lefanoga, Samoa’s war-god. The other Samoan god associated with earthquakes is Mafui'e, whose legends say a local hero wrestled the secret of fire-making from. Could the word "moan" in Brennans quote above be the root for the Samoan word for chicken, moa? As I read how importance Venus was to Mesoamerican traditions, I was impressed with the parallels of those traditions to those of the Middle East. A comment found in William Sullivan's book provides a reasonable insight into a Polynesian name for the planet Mercury - "Filo."
Legend of Maui and Possible Planetary Reference:
Birds in the Maui Legend \Bird represents (?) \Polynesian Name (?) \Native American

- \Mercury \Filo \catu illa

tieke (saddle-back) \Venus \Lulu \chasca coyllur

hihi (stitch-bird) \Mars \- \aucayoc

toutouwai (robin) \Jupiter \Iao \pirua

kokako (Maori crow) \Saturn \Atua \haucha

28. Uo
"Uo, the frog in 1B, is the ally of the Hero Twins and humankind and represents the Uinal, the count of twenty days." (Martin Brennan, The Hidden Maya, p.116)
Does the Samoan "uo" (friend) has an origin in the Mayan "Hero Twins" myth explain above in Brennan’s book? I think it does.
29. Aa
The Samoan word 'aa' means 'root,' 'to come from,' and 'kick.' It is conceivable that this word is rooted in Mesoamerican myths. According to the Samoan Creation myth, three objects prop up the world: the god Tui-te'e-lagi and the first two trees (Masoa and Teve). These three objects that prop up the world and the three societal structure elements (the three fono's) reveal how important the number three is to the Polynesians.
Concerning the Mayan creation myth, Brennan said - "an account of the Creation would not be complete without reference to the Oxib Xk'ub, 'the three hearth stones,' which were born or set up as the first act of Creation. It was Matt Looper, a student of Linda Schele, who first saw the stars in these stones. The Quiche Maya envision a triangle in the constellation Orion composed of the stars Alnitak, Saiph, and Rigel and representing the typical Maya kitchen fireplace. ... It is astonishing that these stars are found in the Maya constellation 'Aac,' the Turtle - what we call the belt of Orion - and that they were at zenith at dawn on the Maya day of Creation."
"In Yucatec the verb 'ah' means 'to dawn' and 'to create.' The Turtle God is a deity of rebirth who presides over and represents the 'a' sound, which, in the vast majority of the world's language, including our own, is the first or primal sound. The turtle's head denotes the 'a' sound in the 'ay-a' glyph introducing the P.S.S. on the vase, meaning, "It came into existence." (The Hidden Maya, Martin Brennan, pp.83-84)
30. Taeao, Ao'auli
It is possible that the Samoan “taeao” (morning) and “ao’auli” (afternoon) originated from Mesoamerican traditions. The following quote from Robert M. Carmack's book, "The Quiche Mayas of Utatlan", shows the words Teojil and ajwilitz.
"K'ij, the Sun, [was] the splendid god, husband of the Moon. Physically considered, it is the astral body that gives the idea of time. Theosophically, it is the God of the gods. In the morning it is call Teojil, Divinity. In the afternoon it is named Ajwilitz, for permitting night to come with its maleficent spirits. (De Leon, pp 45-46, quoted in "The Quiche Mayas of Utatlan", Robert M. Carmack, p.275)
31. Lulu
Is it possible that the Samoan word "lulu" (owl or quake) has roots in Andean myths? The owl is the symbol of the Samoan war-god Lefanoga, and it's also characteristic of bad omen in the Samoan culture. I previously made the suggestion that this word is a Polynesian name for the planet Venus.
"...the 'bad' brother lluthu, the Southern Coalsack, was a sociopathic character whose 'behavior' represented the subversion of customary norms...from the Age of the Warriors, to my knowledge the only Andean myth of pre-Columbian origin in which the partridge, lluthu, plays a significant role." (Sullivan, p.274)
Could this symbol unknowingly survived into modern time by the naming of Wednesday? These are the Samoan names for the week days (“aso”):
Sunday \Aso Sa \Sacred day

Monday \Aso Gafua \First fruit day

Tuesday \Aso Lua \Second day

Wednesday \Aso Lulu \Lulu day?

Thursday \Aso Tofi \Tofi is a Samoanized Thurs

Friday \Aso Faraile \Faraile is a Samoanized Friday

Saturday \Aso Toana'i \Feast day
A search for the origin of the word Wednesday revealed something even more interesting. According to one source, the word Wednesday was inspired by the northern European pagan god Woden. Woden is related to the gods Wotan and Odin, associated with knowledge, war, and wisdom, and also associated with the planet Mercury.
32. Uma, Luma, and the "Hom" glyphs
"It is important to recognize that the Incas were quite well aware of the meaning of the Aymara word 'wira.' The precise spot mentioned by Molina as a pilgrimage stop of the Inca priests, and identified by Larrea as the 'divortium aquaram,' or continental divide, sloughing the two rivers at Vilcanota in opposite directions, was called 'uirauma.' In Quechua this would mean 'fathead.' In Aymara, where 'uma' means 'water,' it might be translated literally as 'tilted plane of waters' or, better, 'the roof of waters' or, best of all, 'watershed.'" (Sullivan, p109)
The Samoan words 'uma' (finish, done) and 'luma' (front, facing the sea) could be rooted in the above Andean myth. The word "uma" might also be a derivative of the Mayan word "hom", especially when we phonetically sound the characters.
“Hom in Cholan and Yucatec means ‘to end up or finish’ and its homophone means ‘to knock down or demolish buildings or hills.’” (Martin Brennan, The Hidden Maya, p.184)
33. The Three Stones of Creation Myth
Previously I said that the Native American astronomical ideas are the sources for some of the Samoan traditions. I think that the Samoans fashioned new ideas from some basic knowledge they acquired - a process similar to how some modern Christian traditions were acquired. For example, the Christians have ideas that aren’t found in the Bible, but were derived from it. The concept of the Rapture for instance, which is an acceptable fact to Christians, isn’t mentioned anywhere in the Bible. Likewise the ideas of the nine heavens and the three supporting pillars in Samoan myths are directly tie to the observations of pre-Columbian astronomers.
"This is just one of several accounts of the three throne stones that were placed by the gods at the time of creation. After this act, the gods separate the sky from the earth and erected the world tree at the center of the universe" (Merging Myth and Politics, p.170-171)
"The concept of the three stones was a core component of Mesoamerican myth. I want to stress that this is Mesoamerican myth. It is not limited to one of the many cultures of Mesoamerica, for it appears, at the very least, among the Olmec, Maya, Mixtec, and Aztec." (p.172)
Elements of this myth are found in the Samoan creation story.
"Then Tangaloa said to Tui-te'e-langi, 'Come here now; that you may prop up the sky.' Then it was propped up; it reached up on high. But it fell down because he was not able for it. Then Tui-te'e-langi went to Masoa and Teve; he brought them and used them as props; then he was able. (The masoa and the teve were the first plants that grew, and other plants came afterwards)." (Tala, Samoan creation story)
34. Taualuga
The Samoan "taualuga" dance (taua: war; luga: above; translates as 'war in a higher place') reveals the importance of the number three in the Samoan culture. In the taualuga, a "taupou" (village maid or virgin) does a slow and dedicate dance. Surrounding her are others doing animated dances to distract the taupou from doing her slow dance, taunting her to move faster, and to copy the way they dance. The "taupou" should continue with her slow dance despite the distraction. The taupou wears a "tuiga" - a headdress made of flowers, shells, human hair, and three recognizable spikes.
This is the basic form of the taualuga, which is demonstrated in a variety of ways by different performers. Also in a 'taualuga', a male person would drop and lay flat down on the floor, which invites the 'taupou' dancer to step on him. Most Samoan festivities that I attended culminated with a 'taualuga' performance where anyone can join, makes lots of noise, and contribute money.
This dance is performed at the conclusion of most Samoan fiafias (festivities). Today the taualuga is mostly done to collect money, and you'll also see variations to the performances. However, all Taualugas involve three characters - the main dancer, encircling dancers who make lots of noise, and someone on the floor to be stepped on.
The Samoan taualuga, to me, has a religious connotation. In my view, this dance enacts the war between good and evil. Good is represented by the center dancer, and evil or chaos is represented by the other characters. Good triumphs in the end when the center character steps on one of the annoying characters who taunt her from the side.
The people of the nearby islands of Tonga borrowed the Samoan Taualuga, which they perform in a distinctive way. However, the Tongan taualuga doesn't have all the elements associated with the Samoan version.
‘Taualuga’ is also the word for the top most part of the roof of a Samoan traditional house. Clearly to me, the ‘taualuga’ is a conceptualization of something spiritual.
35. The three Fono houses
"I have argued that Teotihuacan had a triadic political structure much like that recorded for the Aztec, and that the physical arrangement of thematic motifs in the White Patio reflects an actual political system. However, the murals of the White Patio convey an even richer message, for they integrate political structure with cosmological mythology." ("Landscape and Power in Ancient Mesoamerica", p. 188) (2)
Similar to this apparent three-group political structure in Mesoamerica, the "Solo ole Va" also seems to convey a triadic political organization.
Fono of Tranquility

Or peaceful fono which Tranquility is named;

At fono of Tranquility, your councils you must hold,
This fono was probably a council made up of representatives from the royal families, or the ruler himself.
Fono of Asia

The fono of Asia, the fono of Assembly,

Or of Lologo, or Pule-faatasi.
The fono of Asia ("visit", "include") is probably a general assembly that discuss, expound ("lologo") and legislate ("pule-faatasi").
Fono of the Rock

Or fono of the Rock, or where Confusion reigned,
This fono probably dealt with war, or something having to do with settlement of complaints.
36. The Vase of the Seven Gods
In his book, "The Hidden Maya", page 77, Martin Brennan mentioned an image from a cylindrical vase titled, "The Vase of the Seven Gods." He also mentioned another image found on page 130; the "Seven Macaw" that he explained to refer to the seven stars in the Big Dipper. In the Samoan creation story, the principle god, Tangaloa-fa'a-tutupu-nu'u, caused the following rocks to appear before the actual act of creation took place. They are "Papa-taoto," "Papa-sosolo," "Papa-lau-a'au," "Papa-'ano-'ano," "Papa-'ele," "Papa-tu," and "Papa-'amu-'amu."
According to Gerald Massey, "The Seven Souls of Man and their Culmination in Christ", c. 1900, the number seven was very important in Egyptian traditions.
37. Nine Heavens
The "Samoan Creation Story" tells of the creation of nine heavens. Could this have any connection to Mesoamerica? The Samoan story also starts from the sun.
"Then Immensity and Space brought forth offspring; they brought forth Po and Ao, 'Night and Day,' and this couple was ordained by Tangaloa to produce the 'Eye of Sky,' [the Sun]. Again Immensity and Space brought forth Le-Langi; that is the Second Heavens; for Tui-te'e-langi went forth to prop it up and the sky became double; and Immensity and Space remained there, and they peopled the sky.... Then again Langi brought forth; that was the Ninth Heavens; and it was propped up by Tui-te'e-langi; and that heaven was peopled by Ilu and Mamao. Then ended the productiveness of Ilu and Mamao; it reached to the Ninth Heavens." (Samoan Creation Story)
"The setting of 'The Descent of the Goddess' is a panoramic view of the primordial ocean divided into upper and lower regions separated by a sky band representing the ecliptic and divided into nine segments. In the illustration the first segment is the Sun followed by probable Mars and Mercury symbols. Next comes Jupiter and Venus and then a repetition of the Mercury and Jupiter signs. The next sign contains bands thought to represent the crossing of the Milky Way with the plane of the ecliptic and finally a sign that I think is likely to represent a phase of the Moon." (The Hidden Maya, Martin Brennan, p. 85)
38. Probable Samoan direction names
"I would hypothesize that Tojil was linked to the year-bearer Quej (Deer) through Junajpu the hunter, and Awilix to Ik' (Wind, and Sickness). The other two year-bearers would be more difficult to identify, though Noj (Strong, Resin, Weather) would seem to correlate best with Jakawitz, and E (Tooth) with Nic'aj Tak'aj, through that day's association with maize. These identifications would associate the four gods with major cycles of time; the time cycles, in turn, would receive directional associations: Quej with the east, Ik' with the west, Noj with the south, and E with the north." ("The Quiche Mayas of Utatlan", Robert Carmack, 1934, p.204)
The following list is what I suspect as possible old Polynesian names for the four directions before they settled into their new home, and before their language changed.
Direction \Egyptian \Quiche-Mayas\Samoan \Probable Polynesian
East \- \quej \sasae \tui, tua, lefiti

West \maarav (Hebrew) \ik' \sasifo \iti, hiti, marama

South \shema \noj \toga \hema (Hawaiian),nofo

North \meht \e \matu \ee, i'i, ae, matu

Words

climb \- \nak-en \a'e \-

lift \- \- \sa'e, si'i \-

sit down \- \- \nofo, sifo \-

bow down \pet \- \ifo, punou \-
39. The Moon Rises In The West
Polynesian legends refer to the "Horizon-of-the-Moon" (land lay where the moon comes up) as the West. In the Tahitian legend of Rata (Lata in Samoan), the heroic Rata went on a journey to rescue his mother and retrieve his fathers decapitated head from the evil Puna who lived in Hiti marama - the land where the moon rise. The west of Polynesia is where a people called the Hiti lived. It’s amazing that the Polynesians knew this fact about the moon. The moon actually orbits the earth in a west to east direction. The fact that the Earth spins much faster than the eastward movement of the moon tricked us into thinking that the moon is moving towards the west.
Notes for Chapter 4 (Astronomy):
1. To The Ends Of The Earth; Secrets Of The Incas; Dr. William Sullivan; http://www.channel4.com/history
2. "Landscape and Power in Ancient Mesoamerica", Rex Koontz, Kathryn Reese-Taylor and Annbeth Headrick, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 2001; "Merging Myth and Politics: The Three Temple Complex at Teotihuacan", Annabeth Headrick, p. 188

CHAPTER 6: TOAGA – My unscientific view

Niels Bohr: "Your theory is crazy, but it's not crazy enough to be true."
I will now take what I’ve said in the previous chapters and humbly present an alternative unscientific view of what might have happened to those who Hagoth led out of the Nephite country. You thought the opinions I've expressed so far are strange?

1. "The peopled waves; waves from east to west."

Their goal of reaching the Northern land failed and they’ve unfortunately drifted into the great Pacific. They sadly referred to the island as "motu," which in the Polynesian language means both "island" and "severed." They were truly separated from their kin. An alternative meaning of "motu" is "floating mountain" if we assume it was derived from the Egyptian words "mu" (water), and "tu" (mountain)? The Samoan "mutu" also means separated and severed part. They were cut-off from their countrymen, isolated and alone.

Hardship was not new to the new arrivals, and survival forced them to adapt. After several generations they ventured further westward to the central Pacific.
"The peopled waves; waves from east to west." (Solo Ole Va)

Why didn't they reverse course and go back east? I don't know. Anyway, they made a home for themselves in the new place and their children became masters of the new environment.

2. Rapa Nui

It’s interesting to note that one of the islands Polynesian colonized is named after and a common object they used – the paddle. The island I’m referring to is "Rapa Nui". The paddle was a vital tool to a seafaring people, which can also be a useful weapon. "Nui" in the Egyptian language means weapon or tool. The Polynesian word to describe the paddle is "rapa" ("lapa" in Samoan). The paddle is also "foe" in Samoan. These travelers also used axes, the "toki" ("to'i" in Samoan). I suspect this name was probably derived from the Egyptian word "qeh" (axe).

"Yea, I make a record in the language of my father, which consists of the learning of the Jews and the language of the Egyptians". (Book of Mormon, 1 Nephi 1: 2)

"Easter Island was given the name "Rapa Nui" (Great Rapa) by Tahitian sailors, in the 1860's, as it reminded them of Rapa - a small island in French Polynesia (now commonly referred to as Rapa Iti). Before 1863, the name was unknown on the island." -S. Fischer, "The Naming of Rapanui", Easter Island Studies: Contributions to the History of Rapanui in Memory of William T. Mulloy (Oxbow Monograph 32, Oxford, 1993, pp. 63-66.)

In April 12, 2004, I received the following from Antionette of the Easter Islad Foundation Books: "Dear Pen, 'Rapa Nui' means 'big paddle', literally, although some say that it was named after the island of 'Rapa Iti' because it remined people of that island. The Rapanui people call it 'Te Pito o te Henua', 'the navel of the earth', also translated as 'the end of the earth'. I don't speak any Tahitian, so I don't know what it translates to in Tahitian - sorry! Best regards, Antoinette"

The Samoan words for paddle are "lapa" and "foe" (specific word for rowing paddle). "Lapa" refers to any paddle-line object and also describes a flatten surface. The "foe" is very specific to rowing paddle.

As for the word "nui", I'm not aware of an equivalent Samoan word for it. The word "nui" means big in east Polynesia. Its usage in “Rapanui” in someway is similar to “tele” in the traditional name of the Manu’a Islands - “Manu’a Tele” or simply Manuatele. The Samoan word “tele” means “many”. The word for “large” has the same spelling with an emphasis on the last character “e.” It's possible that the word "nui" was at once used by the Samoans but was later replaced by something else. It's also possible that the Samoan "nuti" (to shatter) have some association with the word "nui". The name "kahuna nui" (guardian-priests) of Hawaii may also have a close association to this subject – the great kahuna. The Zapotec (Central America) word "rapa" means "to take care of", "watches", and "guards". If the Polynesians used their paddles as weapons, then it's possible that the Zapotec word "rapa" applies here too.

3. The Sun - SA, LA, RA

The Samoan word "sa" means sacred or restricted. It's also a prefix designating family association. The "sa" in my opinion is veneration of someone's family, a god, or the sun. The word for sun in Samoan is "la", which in my view is variation of the word "sa". The sun to the Polynesians was a sacred object. Also, the Samoan "la" is synonymous with the word "ra" that is used in other parts of Polynesia. Across Polynesia, the letters "R" and "L" are interchangeable, as in the name of the mythical Polynesian hero Rata (Lata in Samoa). Hence the Samoan word for sun,"la", is synonymous to "ra", which is the word for sun in other parts of Polynesia.

The Samoan "la" also refers to the sail of a boat, which I believe had something to do with the nettle materials that they originally fashioned sails with. Nettle translates to "lah" in the Quechean language and "lalavao" in Samoan. The application of the rising and setting of the sun in the Samoan language may indicate some hidden fact to the direction of their migration.

"Come now; go back by the road you came; take people to possess the Eastern groups; take Atu and "Sasa'e;" that is a pair; they were called conjointly "Atu-Sasae;" these two people came from the heavens from among the children of Tangaloa." (Fraser, Tala: Samoan Creation Story)

The Samoan "sa" translates to the following words - sacredness, family, and sun. The sun was very important to Polynesians. It was their sacred sun. The sacred "sa" survived into their new home in the west, and it was used to derive new words. The words for east (sasae) and west (sisifo) are both derived from the word "sa".

English         \Samoan         \Comment

Climb         \a'e                     \-
East             \sa'sa'e               \latterly "sun climb"
Bow             \ifo                     \-
West           \si'si'fo               \possibly "sa'si'fo" - "sun bow"

The word "a'e" is the Samoan word for climb. The word "sasae" means, "sun climb" (sunrise).  The word "sisifo" (west) probably started out as "sasifo", whereby making "sasifo" to mean "sun going down," or sunset. The word "ifo" is bow in Samoan.

These words are also found in the western Pacific languages: "sae" (to climb - East Timor) and "sifo" (to go down - Lau). The origin and the exchange of these words is a matter for discussion, but it's clear to me that the rising and setting of the sun played a part in it.

The following Mayan words could provide some insight into the relationship between the Polynesian views of the Sun and their directional references.