The geography of the usa

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE USA
Britain's American colonies broke with the mother country in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the United States of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the 19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the North American continent and acquired a number of overseas possessions. The two most traumatic experiences in the nation's history were the Civil War (1861-65), in which a northern Union of states defeated a secessionist Confederacy of 11 southern slave states, and the Great Depression of the 1930s, an economic downturn during which about a quarter of the labor force lost its jobs. Buoyed by victories in World Wars I and II and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains the world's most powerful nation state. Since the end of World War II, the economy has achieved relatively steady growth, low unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances in technology.
North America, bordering both the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean, between Canada and Mexico. About half the size of Russia; about three-tenths the size of Africa; about half the size of South America (or slightly larger than Brazil); slightly larger than China; more than twice the size of the European Union
The first people who came to America did not try to invent new names for the settlements and towns they built, but often gave the new place the same name a the place they had come from. Along the coats of the United States, we find such English names as Plymouth, Cambridge, London, Boston. English names often appear with the word new as a prefix: New York, New Britain.
When the first English inhabitants, or their children left their homes on the East Coats and moved to the tremendous forests and rich lands in the west, they continued the tradition of giving the new places the same names as those they had left behind. As a result, there are twenty-two towns in the United States that are called London or New London, eighteen towns named Bristol, many named Chester, Windsor or New Windsor. It is easy to imagine the difficult conditions this created for the portal service. There are towns named Philadelphia that is the largest city in the state of Pennsylvania. This explains the American tradition of writing the name of the state when addressing letters. If the sender does not write the name of state, he can never be sure that his letter will go to the right address.
Over 350 years ago first settlers arrived from Europe. The first settlers landed on the East Coast. They began clearing the forests and sloughing the soil. Settlers moved Westward, ever seeking better land and greater opportunities. In this way the frontier moved across the United States, from the Atlantic to the pacific.
The eastern part of the United Setters was covered with covered with a great forest – one of the largest and densest in the world. The Appalachian highlands also acted as a barrier to slow the westward movement of settlers. But once across the highlands, a great fertile land of plains invited rapid settlement.
The northeast is where American manufacturing began. The first factories were in New England. They produced cotton cloth. Power and raw materials are the basic ingredients of industry. Both are available in the Northeastern States. Coal, natural gas, oil and of course, water power have long kept to Northeast well supplied with power.
But some of the Northeast’s greatest depend on raw materials that must be imported. Almost all of to cotton, wool, silk, iron, copper, lead, sink, rubber and leather that flow into the Northeast’s mills and factories are shipped into this region.
Fishing has been important in the Northeast. Many towns on the New England coats began as a fishing community. Boston, Portland, New Bedford and Gloucester all were early fishing centers. The Northeast is usually thought of as an industrial workshop of the United States.
American flag has historical relevance. The colors to the USA flag are red, white and blue. Red stands for courage, white for truth and blue for justice. There are 13 stripes on the flag. They are symbolized the original states. They were: New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Origin. The horizontal red and white stripes represent the original thirteen American states that declared they would no longer be colonies of Great Britain. The stats in the flag white on a deep blue background represent the number of states making up the United States. From 1912 until 1958 number of states were forty eight. The Alaska was joined to the United States and forty ninth star appeared on the flag. In the next year Hawaii became the fifties state of America.
During the civil war which began in 1862 the states of the North and South, the soldiers of the South states had their own flag. The North wonthe war and so once again the country had only one flag the stars and Stripes.
There are 50 states in the American flag. Each represents one of the present fifty states. Americans thinks about and treat their flag with respect. Nobody is allowed to use stars and stripes in such things-as advertisements and in American schools the day begins with the solemn. Ceremony of raising the flag.North America has many climates. There are place that are warm all the year round and three are place covered with ice and snow where summer never come.
The United States occupies a large area in the central part of the North American Continent. Winters in the northern part of the country are long and cold. In the South, winters are much shorter. Average temperature in January is mild. As the northern part of the country has such long winters, the growing season is quite short.
In the South the growing season is much longer. In fact, in some of the states it is nine months long. The climate of these places is affected by other things besides the distance from the Equator. Landforms also affect climate. Summer days are often bright and warm in the mountains, but the nights are cold. The growing season is far shorter than in the lowlands.
Oceans also affect climate. Winters are colder in the interior that along the and summers are warmer.
Parts of the Pacific Coast are very wet. The high mountains of this region are responsible for all this rain. They catch the moist air that blows in from the Pacific Ocean.
To the east, beyond the mountains, there is a west dry region. This dry land extends from Canada to Mexico. But still farther east, in the South-eastern United States, you can find another wet region. Here warm, moist air blows inland from the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. This air brings plenty of rain to the South-eastern States. The Northern States east of the Mississippi also receive ample moisture.

LITERATURE

1.Laurence Kimpton. Britain in focus., noon, 1990.
2. An A to Z of British Life Adrian Room. Dictionary of Britain. Oxford University press, 1990.
3.Author Marwick. British society since 1945., Oxford University press 1990.
4. John Scott. Who rules Britain., Oxford 1992.
HISTORY OF THE USA
United States
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The history of the lands that became the United States began with the arrival of the first people in the Americas around 15,000 BC. Numerous indigenous cultures formed, and many saw transformations in the 16th century away from more densely populated lifestyles and towards reorganized polities elsewhere. The European colonization of the Americas began in the late 15th century, however most colonies in what would later become the United States were settled after 1600. By the 1760s, the thirteen British colonies contained 2.5 million people and were established along the Atlantic Coast east of the Appalachian Mountains. The Southern Colonies built an agricultural system on slave labor, importing slaves from Africa for this purpose. After defeating France, the British government imposed a series of taxes, including the Stamp Act of 1765, rejecting the colonists' constitutional argument that new taxes needed their approval. Resistance to these taxes, especially the Boston Tea Party in 1773, led to Parliament issuing punitive laws designed to end self-government. Armed conflict began in Massachusetts in 1775.
In 1776, in Philadelphia, the Second Continental Congress declared the independence of the colonies as the "United States". Led by General George Washington, it won the Revolutionary War. The peace treaty of 1783 established the borders of the new sovereign state. The Articles of Confederation established a central government, but it was ineffectual at providing stability as it could not collect taxes and had no executive officer. A convention wrote a new Constitution that was adopted in 1789 and a Bill of Rights was added in 1791 to guarantee inalienable rights. With Washington as the first president and Alexander Hamilton his chief adviser, a strong central government was created. Purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 doubled the size of the United States.
Encouraged by the notion of manifest destiny, the United States expanded to the Pacific Coast. While the nation was large in terms of area, its population in 1790 was only four million. Westward expansion was driven by a quest for inexpensive land for yeoman farmers and slave owners. The expansion of slavery was increasingly controversial and fueled political and constitutional battles, which were resolved by compromises. Slavery was abolished in all states north of the Mason–Dixon line by 1804, but states in the south continued the institution, to support the kinds of large scale agriculture that dominated the southern economy. Precipitated by the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860, the Civil War began as the southern states seceded from the Union to form their own pro-slavery country, the Confederate States of America. The defeat of the Confederates in 1865 led to the abolition of slavery. In the Reconstruction era following the war, legal and voting rights were extended to freed male slaves. The national government emerged much stronger, and gained explicit duty to protect individual rights. However, when white southern Democrats regained their political power in the South in 1877, often by paramilitary suppression of voting, they passed Jim Crow laws to maintain white supremacy, as well as new state constitutions that legalized discrimination based on race and prevented most African Americans from participating in public life.
The United States became the world's leading industrial power at the turn of the 20th century, due to an outburst of entrepreneurship and industrialization and the arrival of millions of immigrant workers and farmers. A national railroad network was completed and large-scale mines and factories were established. Mass dissatisfaction with corruption, inefficiency, and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement, from the 1890s to the 1920s, leading to reforms, including the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, granting of citizenship to many indigenous people, alcohol prohibition, and women's suffrage. Initially neutral during World War I, the United States declared war on Germany in 1917 and funded the Allied victory the following year. After the prosperous Roaring Twenties, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the onset of the decade-long worldwide Great Depression. President Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented his New Deal programs, including relief for the unemployed, support for farmers, social security, and a minimum wage. The New Deal defined modern American liberalism.[1] Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered World War II and financed the Allied war effort, and helped defeat Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in the European theater. Its involvement culminated in using newly American invented nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to defeat Imperial Japan in the Pacific War.
The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers in the aftermath of World War II. During the Cold War, the two countries confronted each other indirectly in the arms race, the Space Race, propaganda campaigns, and proxy wars. In the 1960s, in large part due to the strength of the civil rights movement, another wave of social reforms was enacted which enforced the constitutional rights of voting and freedom of movement to African Americans. The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union was officially dissolved, leaving the United States as the world's sole superpower. Foreign policy after the Cold War has often focused on conflicts in the Middle East, especially after the September 11 attacks. Early in the 21st century, the United States experienced the Great Recession and the COVID-19 pandemic, which had a negative effect on the local economy.
Amperage Vespucci, a native of Florence and a navigator, was first employed by Spain and later by Portugal, to make explorations. In 1499 he skirted the coast of Venezuela and northeastern south America. During the next four years he made several voyages to Brazil, and explode its coasts as far south as the mouth of the la Plata River. On retuning to Europe he wrote a good description of what he had seen. This was published in 1504, and constituted the first printed account of the mainland of the New World. Up to that time Europe Asia and Africa were known ages the three parts of the world, and one distinguished geographer believed there was an unknown southern continent which constituted the fourth part.
It now seemed clear that Amerigo Vespucci proved the existence of the fourth part. In consequence of this belief a German professor, who printed a little treatise on geography a taw years later, suggested that the fourth part should be called America, after Amerigo Vespucci. Accoding to this suggestion the name America, and later still to the whole of the New World.
The English had visited America at different times. But they had never stayed very long. John Cabot came to Newfoundland in 1498. In 1577 Sir Francis Drake sailed along the western coast of America on his voyage around the world. In 1583 a few men with Ser Humphrey Gilbert tried to settle in Newfoundland, but they found it too cold. Soon after Gilbert’s visit, Sir Walter Raleigh, another Englishman, thought of sending ships to the New World. The first people came over in 1585. They named the land Virginia. A second company came a little later. Neither was successful.
In the year 1606, some English people decided they did not like the way their king, James the first, was treating them. They formed a group which they called the London Company, and made plans to sail for America. King James gave the company, a charter, on the right to build a colony in the new land. The London Company sent three chips to America. For weeks the little boats were tossed about like corks upon the ocean. Then, in April, 1607, the people saw the green shores of Chesapeake Bay. The ships sailed up the river, which the colonists named the James in honor of their king. About thirty miles up the James, the party landed. A fort and a few log houses were built, and the settlement was named Jamestown.
Life was very hard in the little colony. Nearly all of the men had come from the rich or well-to-do families in England. They had never had to work. These people believed the stories of the riches which, they had been told, icy every where in the New World. The Indians gave them some corn, but the colonists never had enough food. Many people died. But in 1610 ships and food came from England and Jamestown was saved.

Literature

1.Америка Иктисодиетининг асослари. АКШ Ахборот Агентлиги, 1993.
2.An Outline of American Government. U.S.Information Agency 1998. Америка хукуматининг асослари.
EDUCATION IN THE USA
Education in the USA begins at the age of six. This is when a child goes to school for the first time and stays at school till the 12th grade. But before that children can go to kindergartens and nursery schools to get some good preparation for elementary school. The main purpose of the elementary school is the general development of children's abilities in reading, writing, spelling, maths, history, geography, art, etc.
The school year usually begins in early September or even at the end of August and lasts till June. American students usually have three holidays during the year of studies: winter break, spring break and summer break. After the 6th form students enter junior high
school and stay there till the 9th form. After that they go to high school. Pupils usually choose subjects in the fields of science, foreign languages, art and vocational training. But courses may be different in different schools. Most young people finish schools with a high school diploma.
The grading system is usually from A (excellent) to F (failed). Students also have final exams, or finals, at the end of a year and they can also have mid-term exams on different subjects.
There are some kinds of schools in the USA. There are state-supported schools, or public schools, that are free of charge and private schools which are often religious. Such schools are often expensive. After students finish high school, they can choose what to do next. They can apply for a university, a four-year college, technical training institutions or a community college. Students go to college for four years and after graduating they get a bachelor's degree. A first-year student is called a freshman, a second-year student is called a sophomore, a third-year student is a junior and a fourth-year student is a senior. After they are accepted to a college, students can think of choosing their majors, or the subjects which will be connected with their future profession. Some colleges allow students to take several majors.
Students' life in college is very interesting. There are usually a lot of different clubs and societies, theatres, museums, a swimming-pool, a gym, a large library and everything that can make students feel at home far from their families. 93% of students usually live on campus, in dorms. Freshmen and sophomores usually live in double rooms, but they can also choose between a single or a double room while juniors and seniors mostly get single rooms. There are also several dining-halls on campus and they offer big variety of food.
Besides colleges American young people can enter universities. They usually don't have any entrance exams, but students must take state exams. Such exams are taken during the school year in the middle of the 12th year. All colleges and universities are for fees, but those students who can't afford paying for their education, can apply for Financial Aid. These are sums of money for students who need money to pay for studies.
After graduating from colleges or universities students can enter a graduate school to get a master's degree.
The elementary schools tend to be mall. The high schools are generally larger and accommodate pupils from four or five elementary schools. A small town generally has several elementary schools and one high school/ in some rural communities the one-room country school house exists. Here may be found from five to twenty-five pupils in grades one through eight, all taught by the same teacher.
Admission to the American high school is automatic on completion of the elementary school. During the four year high school program the student studies four or five major subjects per year, and classes in each of these subjects meet for an hour a day, five days a week. In addition, the student usually has classes in physical education, music, and art several times a week. If he fails a course, he repeats only that course and not work of the entire year. Students must complete a certain number of courses in order to receive a diploma, or a certificate for graduation.
Institutions of higher learning supported by public funds are not absolutely free. The state colleges and universities charge a fee for tuition or registration. This fee is higher for those who come from outside the stately working one’s way through college is commonplace.
Usually there’s no admission examination required by a state university for those who have finished high school within the state. Sometimes a certain scholastic average, or average of high school grades.
Private colleges and universities, especially the larger, well-known ones such as Harvard, Princeton, and Yale, have rigid scholastic requirements for entrance, including an examination.
It usually takes four years to meet the requirements for Bachelor of Ares or Bachelor of Science degree. A Master of Arts or Master of Science degree may be obtained in one or two additional years. The highest academic degree is the Doctor of Philosophy. It may take any number of years to complete the original research work necessary to attain this degree.
From Hawaii to Delaware, from Alaska to Louisiana, each of the 50 states in the USA has its own laws regulating education. From state to state some laws are similar, others are not. For example, all states require young people to attend school.
Though there is no national curriculum in the United States, certain subjects are taught across the country. Almost every elementary school provides instruction in these subjects: mathematics, language arts (a subject that includes reading, grammar, composition and literature), penmanship, science, social studies (a subject that includes history, geography, citizenship, and economics), music, art and physical education. In many elementary schools, courses in the use of computers have been introduced. And in some cases, a foreign language is offered in the upper elementary school. Not all schools offer any foreign language course, if they do, it usually lasts for no longer than half a year. In general, it is not necessary to study a foreign language to get a high school diploma. But if one plans to enter a college or university, one should study a foreign language for no less than two years.
Literature

1. An Outline of American Government. U.S. Information Agency, 1998.

2. Америка Иктисодиетининг асослари. АКШ Ахборот Агентлиги, 1993.

Culture in the USA. Holidays of the country.

Martin Luther King, Jr.`s Birthday Monday, January 15 Each year on the third Monday of January schools, federal offices, post offices and banks across America close to celebrate the birth, the life and the dream of Martin Luther King. He fought for freedom, equality and dignity of all races and people with non-violent means. Martin Luther King day also reminds everybody of Rosa Parks and the Civil Rights Movement. It was a hard way to pass the bill to make this day a federal holiday. Many felt that there were other Americans that deserved a national holiday. But in 1983, fifteen years after King's death, Ronald Reagan signed a bill into law, making the third Monday of January a national holiday. This year's theme is ,,Remember! Celebrate! Act! A day on, not a day off!"
Super bowl Sunday January 28 Super bowl Sunday is a very important day for most Americans. It is the day where the winner of the American Football League and the winner of the National Football league play against each other for the greatest trophy in football history. People have Super bowl Parties and meet to watch the game. The first Super bowl took place in 1967 and this year's game was won by the Baltimore Ravens who won over New York 34 to 7. Every year, communities run out of water because everybody goes to the bathroom at the same time, at the quarterly breaks. The winner team get Super bowl Rings, each worth 5000$ and about 120 000$ prize money. The game is interrupted for commercial breaks and the show starts at early afternoon, so if you watch the whole show you will see a few thousand commercials. The average cost of a thirty second spot is 2.3 million dollars.
Groundhog Day February 2 It is an ancient belief, that hibernating creatures, which means that they sleep in winter, can predict the arrival of springtime. The day half way between the first day of winter and first day of spring is called Candlemas. An old lore says,If Candlemas be fair and bright, Winter has another flight. If Candlemas brings clouds and rain, Winter will not come again."So when the groundhog comes out of his den and sees his own shadow, it will be winter for six more weeks. The U.S. official groundhog is kept in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania. In a great ceremony, in early morning of February 2.
Valentine's Day February 14 Valentine's day derived from a Roman holiday and was brought to the USA by British settlers. People send Valentines to their Valentines. A Valentine can be a card or a gift as a token of love or a person, singled out as somebody's sweetheart. It is also a huge business, shops and restaurants are decorated and the newspapers are full of ads.
Mardi Gras Tuesday, February 27 Mardi Gras is a traditional holiday celebrated in many of the southern states of the USA, especially New Orleans, Louisiana. It was introduced by French settlers in 1699 and the Americans added to it. About two weeks before Fat Tuesday there are parades and masquerade balls that can be watched nightly, that are organized by crews, that pick a king and queen that reign for the parade. The official Mardi Gras colours are purple standing for justice, green for faith and gold for power. At the parades you can make a catch by shouting the sentence: ,,Throw me something, mister." The crews` members ride on floats and throw beads, doubloons, cups and trinkets. Beads are glass necklaces of all shapes and colours that resemble jewellery, royalty would wear, doubloons are metal coins that carry the crews emblem and their theme for the year, cups are plastic drinking cups that hold about 8-10 oz. and they carry the emblem and the theme as well. The trinkets are everything else that is thrown from the float, including candy, Frisbees and whistles. The traditional food for Mardi Gras are King Cakes, which are made of Cinnamon Rolls, formed into an oval with purple, green and yellow icing. Inside there is a figure of a baby hidden, and the one who finds it will have to host the next King Cake party. Wednesday February 28 People go to Church and get the ashes, which means that the priest will make a cross with ash on their forehead and some of them carry it all day long. St. Patrick’s Day March 17 St. Patrick is the Irish national saint and with Ireland being the green island, for this holiday everything is to be green. Shops are decorated as well as restaurants and you have to wear something green, if you do not you can get pinched by anybody.
Easter April 15 Of course Easter is the holiday of the celebration of Jesus’ resurrection. The symbols of Easter are the egg and the rabbit, both pagan symbols of fertility. Apart from going to church on Easter Sunday, Americans like to play Easter games like the Easter Egg Hunt and the Easter Egg Roll. Easter Egg Hunts take place in most homes, lots of churches, shopping malls and public places where eggs are hidden and the kids are invited to find them. The second big game on Easter is the Easter Egg Roll where kids look who can roll an egg the greatest distance or without breaking it, which is usually played on a grassy hillside or slope. The most famous Egg Roll takes place on the White House Lawn, where hundreds of kids come with baskets full of egg and they play where usually the reporters are standing and hope that the President is watching the fun. The second symbol of Easter is of course the Easter Bunny and he appears in a lot of Nursery Rhymes, too. Here comes Petter Cottontail hoppin` down the bunny trail Hippity hoppity Easters on its way!" The Easter Bunny has his origins in Germany and was introduced to American folklore by German settlers in Pennsylvania during the 1700s. It was called ,,Oschter Haws" and considered one of ,,childhood's greatest pleasures" People take their kids to work on this day.
Mother's Day May 13 In 1907, a woman from Philadelphia began campaigning to establish Mother's Day as a national holiday. She did not give up until in 1914, President Wilson made the official announcement, proclaiming Mother's Day a national holiday. Kids are supposed to let their mom have a day off. Many families begin mothers day with a breakfast in bed, while dad and the kids do the work and let mom sleep late. Maybe the kids prepare a little gift for their mom or write a card and lots of families go out for a dinner in mom's favourite restaurant. As a national holiday, Mother's Day is proclaimed by the President every year. For example in 1996, President Clinton proclaimed it as following: ,,...Now, therefore, I, William J. Clinton, President of the United States of America, do hereby proclaim May 12, 1996, as Mother's Day. I urge all Americans to express their gratitude for the many contributions made by our mothers and to observe this day with appropriate ceremonies, activities and programs..." You see that as a good American citizen you have to celebrate Mothers Day.
American Traditions-
I am going to talk about American traditions and first of all I have to tell you that I found it quite difficult to justify what is a tradition or not. Firstly, traditions vary from place to place and with the USA being such a huge country it is just natural that there are other traditions in the north than there are in the south. So I tried to find traditions that are spread across the country or at least known across the fifty states. Secondly, there are traditions that have a history and used to be big one day, but lost their importance as time went by. I tried to pick the traditions that are of importance to the average American citizen. That means that I will leave out holidays like President's day, where people know that it is a holiday, but it does not really matter to them except if they get off school. So please excuse if I will leave out things you consider important or experienced differently. I will now just go through the year 2001 and talk about the holidays as they fall.
Martin Luther King, Jr.`s Birthday Monday, January 15 Each year on the third Monday of January schools, federal offices, post offices and banks across America close to celebrate the birth, the life and the dream of Martin Luther King. He fought for freedom, equality and dignity of all races and people with non-violent means. Martin Luther King day also reminds everybody of Rosa Parks and the Civil Rights Movement. It was a hard way to pass the bill to make this day a federal holiday. Many felt that there were other Americans that deserved a national holiday. But in 1983, fifteen years after King's death, Ronald Reagan signed a bill into law, making the third Monday of January a national holiday. This year's theme is ,,Remember! Celebrate! Act! A day on, not a day off!"
Super bowl Sunday January 28 Super bowl Sunday is a very important day for most Americans. It is the day where the winner of the American Football League and the winner of the National Football league play against each other for the greatest trophy in football history. People have Super bowl Parties and meet to watch the game. The first Super bowl took place in 1967 and this year's game was won by the Baltimore Ravens who won over New York 34 to 7. Every year, communities run out of water because everybody goes to the bathroom at the same time, at the quarterly breaks. The winner team get Super bowl Rings, each worth 5000$ and about 120 000$ prize money. The game is interrupted for commercial breaks and the show starts at early afternoon, so if you watch the whole show you will see a few thousand commercials. The average cost of a thirty second spot is 2.3 million dollars. This years national anthem was performed by the Backstreet Boys and the half time entertainment was by Aerosmith and NSYNC. The game was watched in more than 43 million homes. Groundhog Day February 2 It is an ancient belief, that hibernating creatures, which means that they sleep in winter, can predict the arrival of springtime. The day half way between the first day of winter and first day of spring is called Candlemas. An old lore says:,,If Candlemas be fair and bright, Winter has another flight. If Candlemas brings clouds and rain, Winter will not come again."
So when the groundhog comes out of his den and sees his own shadow, it will be winter for six more weeks. The U.S. official groundhog is kept in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania. In a great ceremony, in early morning of February 2, ,,Punxsutawney Phil", as the groundhog is called, is pulled from his den and whispers his prediction in the ear of his keeper. This happens in front of hundreds of reporters and lots of cameras it is broadcasted on the news all day. Remember the movie ,,Groundhog Day (Und täglich grüßt das Murmeltier)".
Literature
1.Outline of American Government. U.S. Information Agency 1998.
2. Америка Иктисодиетининг асослари. АКШ Ахборот Агентлиги 1993.
3. Америка хукуматининг асослари. АКШ Ахборот Агентлиги 1993.
4. An Outline of American History U.S. Information Agency 1994.
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's second-largest country by total area, with the world's longest coastline. Its southern border with the United States is the world's longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. It is sparsely inhabited, with the vast majority residing south of the 55th parallel in urban areas. Canada's capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.
Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and culminating in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Canada is a parliamentary liberal democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is "called upon" by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the ceremonial head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation and education. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy, and culture.
A developed country, Canada has one of the highest nominal per capita income globally and its advanced economy ranks among the largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs, with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions. Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has had a significant influence on its global image. Canada is part of multiple major international and intergovernmental institutions. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769. To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies. The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution
After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country. The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city. To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.
Canada was the colony of Great Britain; that's why Canada is one of the selfgoverning nations of the Commonwealth of Nations.The system of cabinet government and the office of prime minister in Canada are similar to that of the United Kingdom of Britain, but British Constitution is unitary, Canadian is federal. The federal parliament has exclusive legislative authority.Provincial capitals are: Alberta's in Edmonton, British Columbia's Victoria, Monitoba's Winnipeg, New Bremswick's Frederiction, New Foundland's Saint John's Nova, Scotia's Halibax, Prince Edwards, Island's Charlotten town, Ontaria's Toronto, Quebec's Regina.The active executive authority is the prime minister in the cabinet. He is normally the leader of the political party holding the most seats in parliament.
Canada is officially a bi-lingual country: English and French.
Education in Canada is administered by the department of education. Each provincial department has the general administration's inspectors of schools. In the English speaking provinces the elementary schools have 8 grades. The children begin studying at 5 or 6.Secondary schools continue for the other four or five grades and provide entrance qualifications for university courses from 3 to 7 years. In the French speaking schools of Quebec boys and girls are taught separately up to grade.Then the pupils enter the church operated college (they study there 8 years), University, professional course, or the secondary division of the public school. After that the pupils go to High schools. The National Research Council of Canada was set up in 1916. It stimulates and coordinates scientific and industrial researches, operates independently some eleven laboratories across Canada. There are 19 Universities in Canada. 6 of them are provincial Universities, 9 belong to the church, 4 are private. The largest are Toronto and Mcgill Univesities.
SOME INTERESTlNG FACTS ABOUT CANADA
1.English Canadian people are about 9 mln. French Canadian people are about 6 mln. Indians 240.000 people. Eskimos people are 17.000.
2 .Since the 17th century up to 1864 Canada was a colony of Great Britain.
3. Its parties: The Liberal Party (1873), the Progressive» Conservative party (1854), the Social party (1935)
4.It has 71 000 km. railways, 800 000 km. automobile roads.
5. It is a member of NATO. North"Atlantic Treaty Organization (Шимолий Атлантика Иттифоқига аъзо).
6.Its best libraries: The Toronto University library has 3.600.000 books. The Quebec University library has 885.000 books. The Montreal public library has 912.000 books.
7.Its best museums are:
The Canada national museum (1842), the Canada National Gallery 1880), the King's museum in Toronto (1912).
8.It has 1500 daily newpapers and magazines. They are published in English, French and other languages.
9.The first film was shot in 1914

AUSTRALIA

The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians began arriving from south-east Asia approximately 65,000 years ago, during the last ice age. Arriving by sea, they settled the continent and had formed approximately 250 distinct language groups by the time of European settlement, maintaining some of the longest known continuing artistic and religious traditions in the world. Australia's written history commenced with the European maritime exploration of Australia. The Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon was the first known European to reach Australia, in 1606. In 1770, the British explorer James Cook mapped and claimed the east coast of Australia for Great Britain, and the First Fleet of British ships arrived at Sydney in 1788 to establish the penal colony of New South Wales. The European population grew in subsequent decades, and by the end of the 1850s gold rush, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and an additional five self-governing British colonies established. Democratic parliaments were gradually established through the 19th century, culminating with a vote for the federation of the six colonies and foundation of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901. This began a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and culminating in the Australia Act 1986.
Australia has a highly developed market economy and one of the highest per capita incomes globally. Australia is a regional power, and has the world's thirteenth-highest military expenditure. It is a member of international groupings including the United Nations; the G20; the OECD; the World Trade Organization; Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation; the Pacific Islands Forum; the Pacific Community the Commonwealth of Nations; and the defence/security organisations ANZUS, AUKUS, and the Five Eyes. It is a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Australia, the smallest continent and one of the largest countries on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans in the Southern Hemisphere. Australia’s capital is Canberra, located in the southeast between the larger and more important economic and cultural centres of Sydney and Melbourne. The Australian mainland extends from west to east for nearly 2,500 miles (4,000 km) and from Cape York Peninsula in the northeast to Wilsons Promontory in the southeast for nearly 2,000 miles (3,200 km). To the south, Australian jurisdiction extends a further 310 miles (500 km) to the southern extremity of the island of Tasmania, and in the north it extends to the southern shores of Papua New Guinea. Australia is separated from Indonesia to the northwest by the Timor and Arafura seas, from Papua New Guinea to the northeast by the Coral Sea and the Torres Strait, from the Coral Sea Islands Territory by the Great Barrier Reef, from New Zealand to the southeast by the Tasman Sea, and from Antarctica in the far south by the Indian Ocean.
Australia has been called “the Oldest Continent,” “the Last of Lands,” and “the Last Frontier.” Those descriptions typify the world’s fascination with Australia, but they are somewhat unsatisfactory. In simple physical terms, the age of much of the continent is certainly impressive—most of the rocks providing the foundation of Australian landforms were formed during Precambrian and Paleozoic time (some 4.6 billion to 252 million years ago)—but the ages of the cores of all the continents are approximately the same. On the other hand, whereas the landscape history of extensive areas in Europe and North America has been profoundly influenced by events and processes that occurred since late in the last Ice Age—roughly the past 25,000 years—in Australia scientists use a more extensive timescale that takes into account the great antiquity of the continent’s landscape.
Australia is the last of lands only in the sense that it was the last continent, apart from Antarctica, to be explored by Europeans. At least 60,000 years before European explorers sailed into the South Pacific, the first Aboriginal explorers had arrived from Asia, and by 20,000 years ago they had spread throughout the mainland and its chief island outlier, Tasmania. When Captain Arthur Phillip of the British Royal Navy landed with the First Fleet at Botany Bay in 1788, there may have been between 250,000 and 500,000 Aboriginals, though some estimates are much higher. Largely nomadic hunters and gatherers, the Aboriginals had already transformed the primeval landscape, principally by the use of fire, and, contrary to common European perceptions, they had established robust, semipermanent settlements in well-favoured localities. The American-style concept of a national “frontier” moving outward along a line of settlement is also inappropriate. There was, rather, a series of comparatively independent expansions from the margins of the various colonies, which were not joined in an independent federated union until 1901. Frontier metaphors were long employed to suggest the existence of yet another extension of Europe and especially of an outpost of Anglo-Celtic culture in the distant “antipodes.”
The most striking characteristics of the vast country are its global isolation, its low relief, and the aridity of much of its surface. If, like the English novelist D.H. Lawrence, visitors from the Northern Hemisphere are at first overwhelmed by “the vast, uninhabited land and by the grey charred bush…so phantom-like, so ghostly, with its tall, pale trees and many dead trees, like corpses,” they should remember that to Australians the bush—that sparsely populated Inland or Outback beyond the Great Dividing Range of mountains running along the Pacific coast and separating it from the cities in the east—is familiar and evokes nostalgia. It still retains some of the mystical quality it had for the first explorers searching for inland seas and great rivers, and it remains a symbol of Australia’s strength and independence; the Outback poem by A.B. (“Banjo”) Paterson, “Waltzing Matilda,” is the unofficial national anthem of Australia known the world over.
Australia has a federal form of government, with a national government for the Commonwealth of Australia and individual state governments (those of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania). Each state has a constitution, and its government exercises a limited degree of sovereignty. There are also two internal territories: Northern Territory, established as a self-governing territory in 1978, and the Australian Capital Territory (including the city of Canberra), which attained self-governing status in 1988. The federal authorities govern the external territories of Norfolk Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, Ashmore and Cartier islands, the Coral Sea Islands, and Heard Island and McDonald Islands and claim the Australian Antarctic Territory, an area larger than Australia itself. Papua New Guinea, formerly an Australian external territory, gained its independence in 1975.
Historically part of the British Empire and now a member of the Commonwealth, Australia is a relatively prosperous independent country. Australians are in many respects fortunate in that they do not share their continent—which is only a little smaller than the United States—with any other country. Extremely remote from their traditional allies and trading partners—it is some 12,000 miles (19,000 km) from Australia to Great Britain via the Indian Ocean and the Suez Canal and about 7,000 miles (11,000 km) across the Pacific Ocean to the west coast of the United States—Australians have become more interested in the proximity of huge potential markets in Asia and in the highly competitive industrialized economies of China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Australia, the continent and the country, may have been quite isolated at the beginning of the 20th century, but it entered the 21st century a culturally diverse land brimming with confidence, an attitude encouraged by the worldwide fascination with the land “Down Under” and demonstrated when Sydney hosted the 2000 Olympic Games
New Zealand, Māori Aotearoa, island country in the South Pacific Ocean, the southwesternmost part of Polynesia. New Zealand is a remote land—one of the last sizable territories suitable for habitation to be populated and settled—and lies more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Australia, its nearest neighbour. The country comprises two main islands—the North and the South Island—and a number of small islands, some of them hundreds of miles from the main group. The capital city is Wellington and the largest urban area Auckland; both are located on the North Island. New Zealand administers the South Pacific island group of Tokelau and claims a section of the Antarctic continent. Niue and the Cook Islands are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand. The entry of Britain into the European Community in the early 1970s, however, forced New Zealand to expand its trade relations with other countries. It also began to develop a much more extensive and varied industrial sector. Tourism has played an increasingly important role in the economy, though this sector has been vulnerable to global financial instability.
The social and cultural gap between New Zealand’s two main groups—the indigenous Māori of Polynesian heritage and the colonizers and later immigrants from the British Isles and their descendants—has decreased since the 1970s, though educational and economic differences between the two groups remain. Immigration from other areas—Asia, Africa, and eastern Europe—has also made a mark, and New Zealand culture today reflects these many influences. Minority rights and race-related issues continue to play an important role in New Zealand politics.
New Zealand is part of the Ring of Fire—the circum-Pacific seismic belt marked by frequent earthquakes and considerable volcanic activity. The North Island and the western part of the South Island are on the Indian-Australian Plate, and the remainder of the South Island is on the Pacific Plate. Their collision creates violent seismic activity in subduction zones and along faults. Numerous earthquakes occur annually, including hundreds that can be felt by New Zealanders. A number of these temblors have been disastrous, such as one that devastated the towns of Napier and Hastings in 1931 and a series of quakes that did likewise in Christchurch in 2010
New Zealand’s soils are often deeply weathered, lacking in many nutrients, and, most of all, highly variable over short distances. Soils based on sedimentary rock formations are mostly clays and are found over about three-fourths of the country. Pockets of fertile alluvial soil in river basins or along river terraces form the orchard and market-gardening regions of the country.
Literature

1.АА.Барбарига. Schooling in Great Britain. Москва, 1988.

2. Б.А. Лапидус ва бошқалар. The way to spoken English, Москва, 1963.
3. В.Бурлакова, The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Ленинград, 1977.