The winter of our discontent

the clipped, tight speech of my New England Great -Aunt Deborah
” 
(Steinbeck, 1985: 54). 
Judging from the examples given above, biblical allusions along with other 
linguistic means foreground the theme of loneliness which is one of the main themes 
in the novel. Besides the Bible, Steinbeck alludes to other religious sources. Thus 
the line “Birds in their little nests agree” is a quotation from the poem “Love 
between Brothers and Sisters” written by Isaac Watts, English theologist and the 
author of religious hymns. References to Saint Francis of Assisi,
patron saint of 
animals, can be found in the novel several times. 
In this novel Steinbeck uses allusions not only to certain works of certain 
authors, but also allusions to certain genres. Thus, Ethan Hawley uses ironically a 
senseless utterance composed of Latin and English words that sounds like a prayer. 
(6) “
A reflected cathedral light filled the store, a diffused cathedral light like 
that of Chartres. Ethan paused to admire it, the organ pipes of canned tomatoes, the 
chapels of mustard and olives, the hundred oval tombs of sardines. 'Unimum et 
unimorum', he intoned in a nasal litanic tone. 'Uni unimose quod unibug in omnem 
unim, domine – ahhhhhmen' he sang” 
(Steinbeck, 1985: 21). 
Here allusion is the final element in the chain of the character's associations 
started by switching on the neon light in the grocery store. It is part of a larger 
stylistic complex consisting of comparison and extended metaphor (organ pipes …, 

---

98 
the chapels …, tombs …). This allusion helps the reader to understand the character's 
mentality and see things from his point of view. This example is also a case of genre re-
registration. The form of a prayer is used here in a new unusual context for producing an 
effect different from the traditional one, i.e. ironic, not lofty. 
Ethan's parody of the well-known prayer 'Ave Maria' which he addresses his 
wife is another example of genre re-registration. 
(7) “
Mary of my heart”, he said, “look on your husband, your lover, your dear 
friend. Guard me against evil from within me and from harm without. I pray for your 
help, my Mary, for a man has a strange and wind-troubled need and the ache of the 
ages is on him to spread his seeds everywhere. Ora pro me” 
(Steinbeck, 1985: 247). 
The interesting thing is that Ethan pronounces this mock-prayer in Mary's 
absence. It is his sarcastic reply to Margie's suggestion of partnership and her 
attempts to benefit from her prophecy of fortune for Ethan that has come true. This 
example testifies to Ethan's subtle sense of humour and ironic attitude to life. It also 
proves that his faith is not dogmatic. Some other examples show that in spite of 
being too sensitive over Good Friday, Christ's execution and other religious matters, 
Ethan can still joke about them. 
(8) “I have designed an Easter hat,” I said. “A simple off-the-face crown of 
thorns in gold with real ruby droplets on the forehead” 
(Steinbeck, 1985: 133). 
(9) “What has she done with her hair?” “You noticed that? It is almost 
strawberry.” “To be a light to lighten the gentiles, and to be the glory of thy people 
Israel” 
(Steinbeck, 1985: 139)
. 
The first of the above examples (8) is Ethan's remark on his way to the church 
on Easter Sunday when he hears how women, being part of the festive procession, 
exchange compliments about their hats. In example 9 Ethan uses biblical allusion to 
comment on the too bright hair colour of Mrs. Baker, the wife of the local banker. 
So due to a number of biblical allusions the reader perceives Ethan Hawley at the 
beginning of the novel as a person identifying himself with Christ's sufferings and trying 
to act in agreement with postulates of Christian morality. Thus, on Good Friday he rejects 
a money bribe and turns down transparent hints of Margie Young-Hunt.
 
But later on in 
the novel, thinking and talking about his close childhood friend Danny Taylor, Ethan uses 
a modified version of the phrase from the Bible belonging to Cain who murdered his 
brother Abel. The original phrase was: “
Am I my brother's keeper
?” The modified 
variants are: “
Maybe my guilt comes because I am my brother's keeper
” (Steinbeck, 
1985: 67), “
I feel I should be my brother Danny's keeper
” (Steinbeck, 1985: 144). 
The modified allusive phrase is used twice and hints at Cain's qualities in 
Ethan who, in spite of all his good intentions to help Danny, finally betrays his 
friend and indirectly causes his death. This allusion occurs in the text before the 
above-mentioned events take place and serves as a certain pointer to the probable 
cause of their development. Some critics (McCarthy, 1980: 133) even see Judas's 
features in Ethan and describe him as 'a parody of Judas.' 
It is necessary to touch briefly upon allusions related to Greek, Roman 
mythology and old English legends. They are not frequent in the novel but still 
worth discussing. These allusions are mainly actualized as references and allusive 
proper names. I would like to give several typical examples. 
(10) … but it was in her eyes, her brown myopic eyes, that Ethan saw what his 
wife could never see because it wasn't there when wives were about. This was a 
predator, a hunter, Artemis for pants 
(Steinbeck, 1985: 29).
 

---

99 
(11) A good trick I thought, a killer at ladies' clubs or anywhere else. So must 
the Pythoness have looked, cool and composed, and confusing 
(Steinbeck, 
1985: 115). 
(12) The cabinet has always been the holy place of the parenti to me - Roman 
masks of the ancestors, or the lares and penates back to a stone fallen from the moon. 
(13) “Good bye, Leda. Say hello to the swan.” She laughed away, a baby-
fatted volupt. (1985: 200) 
(14) She sat a bowl of flowers on her head, the yearly vernal offering to 
Eostre. “Like it?” “I love it” 
(Steinbeck, 1985: 90). 
In examples 10 and 11 allusions are used for characterization of Margie 
Young-Hunt. In the first example her characteristics are presented in one of the few 
chapters of the novel written in third person narration. In other words, she is 
characterized from the narrator's point of view. The narrator alludes to the Greek 
goddess Artemis who was the patron of animals and hunting. This example is an 
obvious case of antonomasia. The name of the goddess is used metaphorically to 
emphasize one of the major features of Margie's nature. This feature of her character 
is foregrounded by her surname. The verb 'hunt' constitutes part of it. So the effect of 
the meaningful surname is reinforced by the situational antonomasia. 
In example 11 Margie is characterized by Ethan. Observing her during the 
fortune-telling Ethan compares her with the Pythoness, the famous prophetess at the 
Apollo's temple in ancient Greece. Alluding to Greek mythology Ethan seems to 
develop Margie's characteristics given by the third person narrator.
In example 12 allusion is made to ancient Roman mythology. Ethan uses the 
figurative expression 'lares and penates' as the symbol of home, homely hearth. In 
Roman mythology lares and penates were the patrons of the homeland and homely 
hearth. 
In example 13 Ethan alludes to the Greek myth about Leda, the wife of the 
Spartan king Thindareus. According to the myth her beauty conquered Zeus who 
turned into a swan to seduce her. Here Ethan uses this name ironically while 
addressing his daughter. This reflects his reaction to noticing his daughter's 
blossoming femininity – another case of metaphorical antonomasia. 
Example 14 contains the name of Teutonic goddess of spring Eostra. The 
English word 'Easter' is derived from this name. 
All the above-mentioned allusions are used by Ethan Hawley either in his 
narrative or his direct speech. On one hand mythological and biblical allusions 
contribute to the presentation of Ethan's mentality, his perception of people and 
events, i.e. to his characterization. They tell the reader more about his intellectual 
level and education. On the other hand such allusions contribute to readers' 
understanding of other characters in the novel by typifying them (by establishing 
their similarities to well-known types).