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The 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time
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The 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time “Be less curious about people and more curious about ideas.” Marie Curie [1] Sir Isaac Newton Birth: Dec. 25, 1642 [Jan. 4, 1643, New Style], Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England Death: March 20 [March 31], 1727, London Known for: the Newtonian Revolution [2] Albert Einstein Birth: March 14, 1879, Ulm, Wurttemberg, Germany Death: April 18, 1955, Princeton, N.J., U.S. Known for: Twentieth-Century Science [3] Neils Bohr Birth: Oct. 7, 1885, Copenhagen, Denmark Death: Nov. 18, 1962, Copenhagen Known for: the Atom [4] Charles Darwin Birth: Feb. 12, 1809, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England Death: April 19, 1882, Downe, Kent Known for: Evolution [5] Louis Pasteur Birth: Dec. 27, 1822, Dole, France Death: Sept. 28, 1895, Saint-Cloud, near Paris Known for: the Germ Theory of Disease [6] Sigmund Freud Birth: May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian Empire [now Přibor, Czech Republic] Death: Sept. 23, 1939, London, England Known for: Psychology of the Unconscious [7] Galileo Galilei Birth: Feb. 15, 1564, Pisa [Italy] Death: Jan. 8, 1642, Arcetri, near Florence Known for: the New Science [8] Antoine-Lau rent Lavoisier Birth: Aug. 26, 1743, Paris, France Death: May 8, 1794, Paris Known for: the Revolution in Chemistry [9] Johannes Kepler Birth: Dec. 27, 1571, Weil der Stadt, Wurttemberg [Germany] Death: Nov. 15, 1630, Regensburg Known for: Motion of the Planets [10] Nicolaus Copernicus Birth: Feb. 19, 1473, Toruń, Poland Death: May 24, 1543, Frauenburg, East Prussia [now Frombork, Poland] Known for: the Heliocentric Universe [11] Michael Faraday Birth: Sept. 22, 1791, Newington, Surrey, England Death: Aug. 25, 1867, Hampton Court Known for: the Classical Field Theory [12] James Clerk Maxwell Birth: June 13, 1831, Edinburgh, Scotland Death: Nov. 5, 1879, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England Known for: the Electromagnetic Field [13] Claude Bernard Birth: July 12, 1813, Saint-Julien Death: February. 10, 1878, Paris Known for: the Founding of Modern Physiology [14] Franz Boas Birth: July 9, 1858, Minden, Westphalia, Germany Death: December 21, 1942, New York, U.S Known for: Modern Anthropology [15] Werner Heisenberg Birth: December, 1901, Würzburg, Bavaria, German Empire Death: 1 February 1976, Munich, Bavaria, West Germany Known for: Quantum Theory [16] Linus Pauling Birth: Feb. 28, 1901, Portland, Ore., U.S. Death: Aug. 19, 1994, Big Sur, California Known for: Twentieth-Century Chemistry [17] Erwin Schrodinger Birth: Aug. 12, 1887, Vienna, Austria Death: Jan. 4, 1961, Vienna Known for: Wave Mechanics [18] John James Audubon Birth: April 26, 1785, Les Cayes, Saint-Domingue, West Indies [now in Haiti] Death: Jan. 27, 1851, New York, N.Y., U.S. Known for: drawings and paintings of North American birds [19] Ernest Rutherford Birth: Aug. 30, 1871, Spring Grove, N.Z. Death: Oct. 19, 1937, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England Known for: the Structure of the Atom [20] Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac Birth: Aug. 8, 1902, Bristol, Gloucestershire, England Death: Oct. 20, 1984, Tallahassee, Florida, USA Known for: Quantum Electrodynamics [21] Andreas Vesalius Birth: Dec. 1514, Brussels [now in Belgium] Death: June 1564, island of Zacynthus, Republic of Venice [now in Greece] Known for: the New Anatomy [22] Tycho Brahe Birth: Dec. 14, 1546, Knudstrup, Scania, Denmark Death: Oct. 24, 1601, Prague Known for: the New Astronomy [23] Comte de Buffon Birth: September 07, 1707, Montbard, Burgundy, France Death: April 16, 1788, Paris, France Known for: l’Histoire Naturelle [24] Ludwig Boltzmann Birth: February 20, 1844, Vienna, Austrian Empire (present-day Austria) Death: September 5, 1906, Tybein near Trieste, Austria-Hungary [present-day Duino, Italy] Known for: Thermodynamics [25] Max Planck Birth: April 23, 1858, Kiel, Schleswig [Germany] Death: Oct. 4, 1947, Göttingen, West Germany Known for: the Quanta [26] Marie Curie Birth: Nov. 7, 1867, Warsaw, Poland, Russian Empire Death: July 4, 1934, near Sallanches, France Known for: Radioactivity [27] Sir William Herschel Birth: Nov. 15, 1738, Hanover, Germany Death: Aug. 25, 1822, Slough, Buckinghamshire, England Known for: Sidereal astronomy [28] Charles Lyell Birth: Nov. 14, 1797, Kinnordy, Forfarshire, Scotland Death: Feb. 22, 1875, London, England Known for: Modern Geology [29] Pierre Simon de Laplace Birth: March 23, 1749, Beaumount-en-Auge, Normandy, France Death: March 5, 1827, Paris Known for: Black hole, nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system [30] Edwin Powell Hubble Birth: Nov. 20, 1889, Marshfield, Mo., U.S. Death: Sept. 28, 1953, San Marino, California Known for: Extragalactic astronomy [31] Joseph J. Thomson Birth: December 18, 1856, Cheetham Hill, Manchester, Lancashire, England, United Kingdom Death: August 30, 1940, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England, UK Known for: the Discovery of the Electron [32] Max Born Birth: December 11, 1882, Breslau, German Empire Death: January 5, 1970, Göttingen, West Germany Known for: Quantum Mechanics [33] Francis Harry Compton Crick Birth: June 8, 1916, Northampton, Northamptonshire, England Death: July 28, 2004, San Diego, Calif., U.S. Known for: Molecular Biology [34] Enrico Fermi Birth: Sept. 29, 1901, Rome, Italy Death: Nov. 28, 1954, Chicago, Ill., U.S. Known for: Statistical mechanics [35] Leonard Euler Birth: April 15, 1707, Basel, Switzerland Death: September 18, 1783, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire Known for: Eighteenth-Century Mathematics [36] Justus Liebig Birth: May 12, 1803, Darmstadt, Grand Duchy of Hesse Death: April 18, 1873, Munich, German Empire Known for: Nineteenth-Century Chemistry [37] Arthur Stanley Eddington Birth: December 28, 1882, Kendal, Westmorland, England Death: November 22, 1944, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England Known for: Modern astronomy [38] William Harvey Birth: April 1, 1578, Folkestone, Kent, England Death: June 3, 1657, London Known for: Circulation of the Blood [39] Marcello Malpighi Birth: 1628 Death: 1694 Known for: Microscopic Anatomy [40] Christiaan Huygens Birth: 1629 Death: 1695 Known for: the Wave Theory of Light [41] Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss Birth: April 30, 1777, Brunswick, Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Holy Roman Empire Death: February 23, 1855, Göttingen, Kingdom of Hanover Known for: Number theory, algebra, statistics, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, mechanics, electrostatics, astronomy, matrix theory & optics [42] Albrecht von Haller Birth: October 16, 1708, Bern, Swiss Confederacy Death: December 12, 1777, Bern, Swiss Confederacy Known for: Eighteenth-Century Medicine [43] Friedrich August Kekule von Stradonitz Birth: September 7, 1829, Darmstadt, Grand Duchy of Hesse Death: July 13, 1896, Bonn, German Empire Known for: Theory of chemical structure, tetravalence of carbon, structure of benzene [44] Robert Koch Birth: Dec. 11, 1843, Clausthal, Hannover [now Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany] Death: May 27, 1910, Baden-Baden, Germany Known for: Bacteriology [45] Murray Gell-Mann Birth: September 15, 1929, Manhattan, New York City, United States Known for: Gell-Mann and Low theorem, Elementary particles, quarks, Gell-Mann matrices [46] Hermann Emil Louis Fischer Birth: October 09, 1852, Euskirchen, Rhine Province Death: July 15, 1919, Berlin, Germany Known for: Organic Chemistry [47] Dmitri Mendeleev Birth: Jan. 27 [Feb. 8, New Style], 1834, Tobolsk, Siberia, Russian Empire Death: Jan. 20 [Feb. 2], 1907, St. Petersburg, Russia Known for: the Periodic Table of Elements [48] Sheldon Glashow Birth: December 5, 1932, New York City, New York, USA Known for: Electroweak theory & Georgi–Glashow model [49] James Dewey Watson Birth: April 6, 1928, Chicago, Illinois, U.S Known for: the Structure of DNA [50] John Bardeen Birth: May 23, 1908, Madison, Wisconsin, U.S Death: Jan. 30, 1991, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S Known for: Superconductivity & BCS theory [51] John von Neumann Birth: December 28, 1903, Budapest, Austria-Hungary Death: February 8, 1957, Walter Reed General Hospital Washington, D.C. Known for: the Modern Computer [52] Richard P. Feynman Birth: May 11, 1918, New York, N.Y., U.S. Death: Feb. 15, 1988, Los Angeles, California Known for: Quantum Electrodynamics [53] Alfred Lothar Wegener Birth: Nov. 1, 1880, Berlin, Germany Death: Nov. 1930, Greenland Known for: Continental Drift [54] Stephen W. Hawking Birth: Jan. 8, 1942, Oxford, Oxfordshire, England Known for: Quantum Cosmology [55] Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Birth: Oct. 24, 1632, Delft, Neth. Death: Aug. 26, 1723, Delft Known for: the Simple Microscope [56] Max von Laue Birth: Oct. 09, 1879, Pfaffendorf, Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire Death: April 24, 1960, West Berlin Known for: X-ray Crystallography [57] Gustav Kirchhoff Birth: March 12, 1824, Königsberg, Kingdom of Prussia [present-day Russia] Death: October 17, 1887, Berlin, Prussia, German Empire [present-day Germany] Known for: Kirchhoff’s circuit laws, Kirchhoff’s laws of spectroscopy, Kirchhoff’s law of thermochemistry & Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation [58] Hans Bethe Birth: July 2, 1906, Strassburg, Ger. [now Strasbourg, France] Death: March 6, 2005, Ithaca, N.Y., U.S. Known for: the Energy of the Sun [59] Euclid Known for: the Foundations of Mathematics [60] Gregor Mendel Birth: July 22, 1822, Heinzendorf, Austria [now Hynčice, Czech Rep.] Death: Jan. 6, 1884, Brünn, Austria-Hungary [now Brno, Czech Rep.] Known for: the Laws of Inheritance [61] Heike Kamerlingh Onnes Birth: September 21, 1853, Groningen, Netherlands Death: February 21, 1926, Leiden, Netherlands Known for: Superconductivity, Onnes-effect &Virial Equation of State [62] Thomas Hunt Morgan Birth: September 25, 1866, Lexington, Kentucky Death: December 04, 1945, Pasadena, California Known for: the Chromosomal Theory of Heredity [63] Hermann von Helmholtz Birth: August 31, 1821, Potsdam, Kingdom of Prussia Death: September 08, 1894, Charlottenburg, German Empire Known for: the Rise of German Science [64] Paul Ehrlich Birth: March 14, 1854, Strehlen, Lower Silesia, German Kingdom of Prussia Death: August 20, 1915, Bad Homburg, Hesse, Germany Known for: Chemotherapy [65] Ernst Walter Mayr Birth: July 05, 1904, Kempten, Germany Death: February 03, 2005, Bedford, Massachusetts, United States Known for: Evolutionary Theory [66] Theodosius Grygorovych Dobzhansky Birth: January 25, 1900, Nemyriv, Russian Empire Death: December 18, 1975, San Jacinto, California, United States Known for: the Modern Synthesis [67] Max Delbruck Birth: September 04, 1906, Berlin, German Empire Death: March 9, 1981, Pasadena, California, United States Known for: the Bacteriophage [68] Charles Scott Sherrington Birth: November 27, 1857, Islington, Middlesex, England Death: March 04, 1952, Eastbourne, Sussex, England Known for: Neurophysiology [69] Jean Baptiste Lamarck Birth: August 01, 1744, Bazentin, Picardy, France Death: December 18, 1829, Paris, France Known for: the Foundations of Biology [70] William Bayliss Birth: May 2, 1860, Wednesbury, Staffordshire, England Death: August 27, 1924, London, England Known for: Modern Physiology [71] John Dalton Birth: Sept. 5 or 6, 1766, Eaglesfield, Cumberland, England Death: July 27, 1844, Manchester Known for: the Theory of the Atom [72] Frederick Sanger Birth: August 13, 1918, Rendcomb, Gloucestershire, England Death: November 19, 2013, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England Known for: the Genetic Code [73] Louis Victor de Broglie Birth: August 15, 1892, Dieppe, France Death: March 19, 1987, Louveciennes, France Known for: Wave/Particle Duality [74] Carl Linnaeus Birth: May 23, 1707, Råshult, Stenbrohult parish (now within Älmhult Municipality), Sweden Death: January 10, 1778, Hammarby (estate), Danmark parish (outside Uppsala), Sweden Known for: the Binomial Nomenclature [75] J. Robert Oppenheimer Birth: April 22, 1904, New York, N.Y., U.S. Death: Feb. 18, 1967, Princeton, N.J. Known for: the Atomic Era [76] Sir Alexander Fleming Birth: Aug. 6, 1881, Lochfield Farm, Darvel, Ayrshire, Scotland Death: March 11, 1955, London, England Known for: Penicillin [77] Jonas Edward Salk Birth: October 28, 1914, New York Death: June 23, 1995, La Jolla, California, United States Known for: Vaccination [78] Robert Boyle Birth: Jan. 25, 1627, Lismore Castle, County Waterford, Ireland Death: Dec. 31, 1691, London, England Known for: Boyle’s law [79] Francis Galton Birth: Feb. 16, 1822, near Sparkbrook, Birmingham, Warwickshire, England Death: Jan. 17, 1911, Grayshott House, Haslemere, Surrey Known for: Eugenics [80] Joseph Priestley Birth: March 13, 1733, Birstall Fieldhead, near Leeds, Yorkshire [now West Yorkshire], England Death: Feb. 6, 1804, Northumberland, Pa., U.S. Known for: Discovery of oxygen [81] Hippocrates Known for: Medicine [82] Pythagoras Known for: Pythagorean Theorem [83] Benjamin Franklin Birth: January 17, 1706, Boston, Massachusetts Bay, British America Death: April 17, 1790, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. Known for: Electricity [84] Leonardo da Vinci Birth: April 15, 1452, Anchiano, near Vinci, Republic of Florence [now in Italy] Death: May 2, 1519, Cloux [now Clos-Luce], France Known for: Mechanics and Cosmology [85] Ptolemy Known for: Greco-Roman science [86] Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac Birth: Dec. 6, 1778, Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat, France Death: May 9, 1850, Paris Known for: Behavior of gases [87] Archimedes Known for: the Beginning of Science [88] Sir Fred Hoyle Birth: June 24, 1915, Bingley, Yorkshire [now West Yorkshire], England Death: Aug. 20, 2001, Bournemouth, Dorset Known for: Stellar nucleosynthesis [89] Norman Ernest Borlaug Birth: March 25, 1914, Cresco, Iowa, U.S. Known for: Green revolution [90] Amedeo Avogadro Birth: Aug. 9, 1776, Turin, in the Kingdom of Sardinia and Piedmont Death: July 9, 1856, Turin, Italy Known for: Molecular Hypothesis of Combining Gases [91] Luis W. Alvarez Birth: June 13, 1911, San Francisco, Calif., U.S. Death: Sept. 1, 1988, Berkeley, California Known for: discovery of many resonance particles (subatomic particles having extremely short lifetimes and occurring only in high-energy nuclear collisions) [92] George Gamow Birth: March 4, 1904, Odessa, Russian Empire [now in Ukraine] Death: Aug. 19, 1968, Boulder, Colo., U.S. Known for: Big Bang Hypothesis [93] Francis Collins Birth: April 14, 1950, Staunton, Va., U.S. Known for: Human Genome Project [94] Albert Abraham Michelson Birth: Dec. 19, 1852, Strelno, Prussia [now Strzelno, Pol.] Death: May 9, 1931, Pasadena, Calif., U.S. Known for: Establishment of the speed of light as a fundamental Constant [95] Rachel Carson Birth: May 27, 1907, Springdale, Pa., U.S. Death: April 14, 1964, Silver Spring, Md. Known for: Environmental pollution and the natural history of the sea [96] Joseph Lister Birth: April 5, 1827, Upton, Essex, England Death: Feb. 10, 1912, Walmer, Kent Known for: antiseptic medicine [97] Louis Agassiz Birth: May 28, 1807, Motier, Switz. Death: Dec. 14, 1873, Cambridge, Mass., U.S. Known for: Natural science [98] André-Marie Ampère Birth: Jan. 22, 1775, Lyon, France Death: June 10, 1836, Marseille Known for: Electrodynamics [99] Paracelsus Birth: Nov. 11 or Dec. 17, 1493, Einsiedeln, Switzerland Death: Sept. 24, 1541, Salzburg, Archbishopric of Salzburg [now in Austria] Known for: Der grossen Wundartzney (“Great Surgery Book”) [100] Edward O. Wilson Birth: April 15, 1452, Anchiano, near Vinci, Republic of Florence [now in Italy] Death: June 10, 1929, Birmingham, Ala., U.S. Known for: Sociobiology Space: the potential habitable worlds around ten thousand billion billion stars; ours is just one. Time: a cosmic history of nearly 14 billion years; life took less than ½ billion years to start here. “If they not be inhabited, what a waste of space.” : Thomas Carlyle, Scottish Essayist (1795-1881) In a typical absorption spectral measurement a monochromatic radiation is made to fall on a homogeneous absorbing substance. In such a situation a part of the radiation is reflected, a part is absorbed, and a part is transmitted. The intensity of incident radiation, I is equal to the sum of the intensities of reflected (I'''), absorbed (I') and transmitted (I'') radiation. I = I''' + I' + I" In most cases of homogeneous nonmetallic substances, such as transparent substances, the loss of radiant intensity due to reflection may not exceed 4%. This fraction can be, and is therefore, usually ignored. Thus, for all practical purposes, we may write: I = I' +I" If temperature, composition, and other factors including wavelength are kept constant, then the rate of absorption of intensity of incident monochromatic radiation on passage through a homogenous absorbing substance, – dI/dt, where I is the incident radiant intensity and t the time, is directly proportional to the intensity of incident monochromatic radiation, namely, that – dI / dt = k I dlnI = – k · dt
A plot of absorbance versus thickness ‘ℓ’ is expected to a straight line passing origin with slope = k" η /c. When homogeneous solutions of chemical species are considered, it is clearly desirable to modify this expression to include the concentration of absorbing chemical species. Thus, the extinction rate coefficient in above equation is in turn related to the concentration of absorbing chemical species. k"= kM C where k M, called the molar extinction rate coefficient, is a proportionality constant determined by the nature of the absorbing chemical species and the wavelength of light used. Absorbance = (kM η ℓ /c) C kM = (c / η ℓ C) × absorbance The molar extinction rate coefficient is a measurement of how fast a chemical species absorbs light at a given wavelength. It is an intrinsic property of the chemical species, also a measure of the rate of the electronic transition. The larger the molar extinction rate coefficient, the faster the electronic transition. The absorbance is measured with some form of spectrophotometer. At present spectrophotometers utilizing photoelectric cells are available which give absorbance directly. Once absorbance for a given solution is measured and the thickness of the cell used is known, the molar absorption rate coefficient of the given solution for the given wavelength can readily be calculated by knowing the refractive index of the solution and the concentration of absorbing chemical species. At low concentrations, less than 10−3 M, absorbance is linear and proportional to concentration of absorbing chemical species with slope = kM η ℓ /c. A plot of absorbance versus concentration is not always expected to a straight line passing origin. In practice, the following effects may lead to deviations from linearity:
According to Beer Lambert’s law, Absorbance = εℓC where ɛ, called the molar extinction coefficient, is a measurement of how strong a chemical species absorbs light at a given wavelength. Since Absorbance = (kM η ℓ /c) C: (kM η ℓ /c) C = εℓC From this it follows that kM η /c = ε or kM / ε = c / η Since η is always less than c. Therefore: kM is > than ε Which means: rate of absorption is always greater than the strength of absorption. Yüklə 283,52 Kb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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