Beacon dictionary of theology

VICE. Vice is the term applied to those immoral or evil habits which degrade both individuals and society. Vice is the opposite of virtue, as wrong is of right and darkness is of light.

While the KJV does not employ the word "vice," some recent versions do (e.g., Rom. 13:13 and Eph. 4:19, neb; 1 Cor. 5:8, nbv, Williams' ntlp). In NT times the Graeco-Roman world was vice-ridden, especially with sex sins. Premarital and extramarital sex, homosexuality, and incest were practiced without shame. Prostitution was connected with and sanctioned by the rituals of heathen temples.

Medieval theologians set forth seven vices— called "capital" or "deadly" sins— as the root cause of all of humanity's moral and spiritual ills: pride, covetousness, lust, envy, gluttony, anger, and sloth.

In today's society paganism's ancient immoralities are again flourishing—often glamorized. There is widespread fear that illicit sex, abortion, divorce, drug addiction, alcoholism, nicotine addiction, pornography, gambling, cheating, thievery, demoralizing recreations, and the like are propelling our civilization toward destruction.

Biblical Christianity (Eph. 2:8-10) is the perfect antidote to humanity's vices (Rom. 1:29-32; 1 Cor. 5:1; 6:13-20; 1 Thess. 4:3-8).

See VIRTUE, SEVEN DEADLY SINS. SIN.

For Further Reading: GMS, 120-28, 268-84, 527-47.

Delbert R. Rose

VICTORY, VICTORIOUS LIVING. In the Scriptures, words such as "triumph," "conquer," and "overcome" express the various facets of victory. The victory is always the Lord's and is credited to others only as He is willing to make it His gift, or with whom He graciously and gratuitously shares it (Deut. 20:4; Ps. 18:50; 44:1-8; Judg. 5:11; 2 Sam. 22:51; et al.).

In the OT "victory" is synonymous with the manifested supremacy and complete preeminence of Jehovah, perhaps even with His attributes of glory. Creation (Ps. 92:4) and redemption (Exod. 15:1, 21) alike demonstrate His victory and triumph.

The victory of God indicates also the ultimate and universal vindication of God's will and purpose, the full accomplishment of His intentions and activities (1 Chron. 29:10-13; Isa. 25:8-9; et al.). The thought of the moral and spiritual triumph of His people is also included (Dan. 11:32, rsv).

Nor must we forget that the concept of victory also includes and expresses the praise and joy of those who share the victory of God, for the ideas of public acclaim and personal jubilation are embraced (Exod. 15:1-2; Judg. 5:1-32; Josh. 10:24;

cf. Rom. 16:19-20). The "God of peace" is that God of efficient action and all-triumph.

In the NT all of these elements are in the Christian concept of "victory." The divine victory is achieved in the Lord Jesus Christ. Although His life was one of unrelieved conflict, it was one long trail of triumph of faith, obedience, and discipline, coming to final unequivocal triumph in His death and resurrection, in which He was the Victim-Victor (1 Cor. 15:54; Rom. 4:25). The Cross is the raw material of the Crown; the victim's scaffold is the victor's chariot (Col. 2:13-15).

The victory is and ever will be the Lord's (Rev. 11:15-18). But He shares it now and in the future with all who trust Him and keep His commandments. "The victory is ouris, thank God!" (1 Cor. 15:54, Moffatt). In Paul's world the "triumph," strictly speaking, was a festival celebrating the victory. This too is part of victory in the NT (2 Cor. 2:14) and means a whole "fount of blessing" to the believing heart: triumph in trouble (Rom. 5:3-5, rsv, cf. Moffatt), inward assurance (8:37), the possibility of triumphant faith (1 John 5:5).

These logically lead to and postulate a victorious life-style. Life is built from the inside; victorious Christian living depends on yieldedness and submission to the triumphant Spirit of Christ. "Greater is he that is in you, than he that is in the world" (1 John 4:4). And, it is the great positive that determines the matter of victory in Christian life: "Let God re-make you so that your whole attitude of mind is changed. Thus you will prove in practice that the will of God's good, acceptable to him, and perfect" (Rom. 12:1-2, Phillips). Paul exults, "I can do all things in him who strengthens me" (Phil. 4:13, rsv). Triumphant Christian life-style in a hostile and aggressive age demands not only that we put on "the whole armor of God" (Eph. 6:11-18, rsv), but first of all that the man in the armor be "strong in the Lord and in the strength of his might" (v. 10, rsv).

See IN CHRIST, GROW (GROWTH), HOLINESS, HIGHER LIFE, LIFE-STYLE.

For Further Reading: Cattell, The Spirit of Holiness; Redpath, Victorious Christian Living.

T. Crichton Mitchell

VIRGIN BIRTH. Virgin birth is a specific term. There has never been but one, that of Jesus Christ. The conception and birth took place without sexual union between the mother and any man. The preexistent Son of God took to himself human nature and "came" as a man among men. The Word was made flesh (John 1:1-14). Technically, it was only the conception that was unique. Once the babe was "conceived of the Holy Ghost" (Matt. 1:20), the natural processes seem to have carried through to birth. The Son of God became also the Son of Man and the Seed of the woman.

The Virgin Birth can only be explained as an act of God. God had created Adam with no parent, Eve with no mother, and others with both parents. Now He brought His Son into the world (Heb. 1:6) by a fourth method. God supplied what was lacking in the ovum of Mary and implanted the Son of God in human flesh in the womb of the virgin. This new thing that God did brought excitement in heaven and good tidings to earth (Luke 2:9-14). However else God could have done it, He did bring salvation through the virgin-born Messiah. To make a myth of it would dilute and call in question the whole plan of salvation.

Nor does the Virgin Birth furnish scriptural or logical grounds for the myth of the "perpetual virginity" of Mary. She remained a virgin until after the birth of her "firstborn son" (Matt. 1:25). Then she apparently surrendered her virginity in the God-ordained way. The fruit of love and marriage is evident in sons and daughters, half brothers and half sisters of Jesus (Matt. 13:54-56). Her virginity had accomplished its purpose. It was not standardized as the ideal adult state.

The Virgin Birth is reasonable, though neither proved nor disproved. It is not a problem but a solution. It is a unique fact that explains how the Incarnation took place.

On what authority, then, does the Virgin Birth stand? The Word of God. Whether or not the Greek and Hebrew words (parthenos and almah) always retain the usual meaning of unmarried and pure virgin (Matt. 1:23 and Isa. 7:14), there is no question in the NT context. The case does not rest on linguistics. The angel made factual affirmation of the Virgin Birth to both Mary and Joseph (Luke 1:26-38 and Matt. 1:18-25). Although these details of God's act are not fully repeated elsewhere in the Scriptures, the announced facts are the key to the mysteries of both prophecy and fulfillment in the plan of redemption. This is how Jesus "came," "was sent," "was made flesh," etc. Nothing contradicts these facts. Everything leans on them. As Machen says, "The virgin birth is an integral part of the New Testament witness about Christ" (The Virgin Birth of Christ, 396).

The announcements of the Virgin Birth are addressed to faith—as are the existence of God and the truth of God's Word. It may not have been best to share the facts immediately with the skeptical public. One wonders at what point

Mary's knowledge spread to the family and to the community of believers. Certainly it was known by the time of the earliest written Gospels. And it is in the earliest creeds, baptismal formulae, and even in exorcism. Accepting God's explanation of the coming of the Savior seemed to be a test of faith. In the Early Church one had to profess belief in the Virgin Birth to be baptized. Historically, the doctrine has always been considered to be one of the fundamentals of the Christian faith.

See CHRIST, INCARNATION. CHRISTOLOGY

For Further Reading: Machen, The Virgin Birth of
Christ; Edwards, The Virgin Birth in History and Faith;
On, The Virgin Birth of Christ; Boslooper, The Virgin
Birth; GMS, 353-56. WlLBER T. DAYTON

VIRTUE. This is a word rarely used in the Scriptures. All four OT references describe women: "A virtuous woman is a crown to her husband" (Prov. 12:4; cf. Ruth 3:11; Prov. 31:10, 29). In this context, virtue is synonymous with moral uprightness, chastity, and goodness.

Virtue is ascribed to God once in the NT (1 Pet. 2:9, where it is translated "praises" in Kjv), and to men four times. In each instance, virtue is better translated as "Moral excellence." It represents a positive quality of personal character derived from the character of God himself: "His divine power has granted to us everything pertaining to life and godliness, through the true knowledge of Him who called us by His own glory and excellence" (2 Pet. 1:3, NASB, italics added). It is an attribute, however, that must be actively cultivated: "Applying all diligence, in your faith supply moral excellence [virtue], and in your moral excellence, knowledge" (v. 5, NASB).

The Greek philosophers distilled four virtues —self-control, courage, justice, and wisdom— which represent the epitome of human moral achievement. And for that very reason, virtue, in the classical sense, proved to be only marginally useful to NT writers. Moral excellence is not the result of man's efforts but of God's grace, appropriated by faith: "For we are His workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works" (Eph. 2:10, NASB).

See SEVEN CARDINAL VIRTUES, CHARACTER, GROW (GROWTH).

For Further Reading: Wynkoop, A Theology of Love, 165-83; Ferm, Encyclopedia of Morals, 11-38.

C. S. COWLES

VISION. A popular use of the word "vision" is based on a misunderstanding of Prov. 29:18 inculcated by the poor rendering of it in the KJV.

"Vision" is not merely a hunch of something that should and must be done, and the challenge to rise up and do it. Vision is one means by which God reveals His will and gives guidance. The idea of "oracle" or oracular is also involved and has reference to the Word of God by which all things are to be tested (Acts 7:38; Rom. 3:2; etc.).

"Vision" is an ecstatic experience in which new knowledge is revealed through something seen. Usually the recipient of the vision (not always a "visionary" in the usual sense of the word) is assigned to do something, say something, or go somewhere; he is commissioned to communicate the new knowledge to others. Hence vision, prophecy, and oracle are closely connected. OT prophets, NT prophets, and apostles are alike in this respect: They have God's Word in trust for transmission.

Prov. 29:18 (RSV) insists that unless some persons had received special communications, and passed them on to others together with their meaning, anarchy and chaos would have and still would overtake mankind. Disregard for the vision and the Word still breeds anarchy and terrorism. The revelation of God's will was made by means of visions (Ps. 89:19, nasb). Nathan the prophet exemplifies the receiving of a vision, the communication of the word of the vision, and the challenge to obey that word (1 Chron. 17:3-15).

The NT apostles and prophets likewise were granted visions prompting the communicating of divine truth (Acts 2:17; 10:1-8; 16:9; Rev. 1:9-20). Paul relates visions and revelations in 2 Cor. 12:1-5, but it seems clear that to him visions are subject to higher laws, especially the law of perfect love (1 Cor. 13:1-3; 14:32-33).

Paul received both "visions" and "revelations"; the former suggests seeing, the latter suggests hearing; the former will be subject to the latter, and both will be held within the control of perfect love. We must note also that the Pauline formula "in Christ" overarches all, and that the visions and revelations are "of the Lord," received in the context of spiritual discipline through physical suffering (2 Cor. 12:7-10). Even the moderating element "a thorn in the flesh" was a "gift" from God—in spite of its designation as "a messenger of Satan."

The element of challenge should not be overlooked, however. The vision is the call, and it is inspired guidance to follow the call. Without it we lose our way, get out of touch with God, and yield to the vagaries of human reasoning; and so, in the words of the wise man, we "run wild" but are not free.
See truth, revelation (special), holy spirit, guide (guidance), vocation, prophet (prophecy), preaching.

For Further Reading: NBD, 1312; ISBE, 5:3057.

T. Crichton Mitchell

VOCATION. In Christian theology, "calling" (Lat. vocatio) means both God's summons (election) to saving faith and fellowship in the covenant community, and divine assignment to serve the neighbor through one's daily work. Biblical thought gives a central place to the former and a sound basis for the latter, more fully developed in Protestantism.

God calls the Hebrews out of slavery into covenant community, names them as His own, and claims them for His service. He also calls individuals such as Moses and the prophets for particular tasks. In the NT God calls a new people into being in Christ. Gentiles are invited to share the fellowship, inherit the promises, and bear the ministry of reconciliation. All are "called to be saints" (holy ones, Rom. 1:7) and servants, to belong to God and become like Christ in all of life (cf. Eph. 4:2). Within this universal or general calling, some are specially assigned to perform particular functions within the Body of Christ for the effectiveness of its ministry.

Building upon this base, Luther and Calvin gave Christian vocation a distinctive meaning by uniting the biblical themes of divine vocation and daily work. In opposition to the double standard of medieval Christianity which limited vocation to the religious life of priests and monks, the Reformers stressed that every Christian is called into God's service in and through the daily occupation. One's common work is assigned by the Lord, to be done in faith and disciplined obedience, for ministry to the neighbor. Herein are the priesthood of all believers and the equality of all before God—profoundly biblical ideas with revolutionary social consequences. The transition to modern secular, technological society, however, has brought with it serious obstacles to this understanding of vocation as stewardship and service in the common life.

See call (called, calling), stewardship, work (works), labor, leisure.

For Further Reading: Brown, The Spirit of Protestantism, chaps. 7—9; Gardner, Biblical Faith and Social Ethics, 297-303; Nelson, ed., Work and Vocation: A Christian Discussion; Scheef, "Vocation," 7DB.

Wilfred L. Winget

VOLUNTARISM. See intellectualism.

VOWS. A vow is a solemn promise. It may be legally binding, supported by documents and signatures; or it may be verbal only. A vow differs from an oath in that a vow relates to future action or performance, while an oath is a commitment to the truth, usually accompanied by invoking Deity or some sacred object. However, vows in the OT were usually confirmed by an oath.

The biblical view of vows is that they must be voluntary in order to be binding (Deut. 23:22), and that they are subject to the approval of those who may have authority over one (Num. 30:10-15). But once made and validated, they are to be sacredly kept. A mark of one who will abide in the Lord's tabernacle is the kind of fidelity that "sweareth" to one's "own hurt, and changeth not" (Ps. 15:4). The Preacher bitingly prods: "When thou vowest a vow unto God, defer not to pay it; for he hath no pleasure in fools" (Eccles. 5:4). Clearly the biblical viewpoint is that there is no more accurate index to character than the carefulness with which one fulfills one's vows.

Most of the vows in biblical times were religious. The first instance was Jacob's promise at Bethel to serve God and pay tithes. Two NT cases are Acts 18:18; 21:23, both involving Paul. The vows (whatever they were) required certain formalities and religious rites.

Human relationships today are bound together by vows also, in spite of the fact that the contemporary mood is to deny them. The most basic to society are civil vows, commercial vows, and marital vows (most under attack). In church circles there are also membership vows and ordination vows.

Even a utilitarian philosophy of social contract should prompt fidelity to vows; for when vows are despised and disregarded, the fabric of society disintegrates. How much more conscientiously should Christians keep their vows, who are prompted by Christian love, undergirded with a sense of integrity. Church members who flagrantly violate their church vows, and clergy who forget their ordination vows, bring dishonor to Christ and His Church.

The most concerted attack in modern society is on marriage vows, not only by the increasingly easy divorce, but by the trend to live together without benefit of legal contract. But marital vows serve a dual purpose. First, they acknowledge the stake which society has in the marriage. The community which must "pick up the pieces" if the marriage fails, is inescapably implicated because property rights, personal protection of

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wife and children, and such matters all depend on the network of law. Young people who conform to state requirements and exchange vows publicly, signing official documents, are acknowledging these inherent rights of the community and accepting responsibility in conformity to them.

But even more importantly, vows if taken in the name of God, or especially within a religious context, are the public acknowledgment of the claims of God upon the union: that marriage is instituted of God, to be governed by His laws, and ultimately to be judged by God. These rights of God prevail whether they are acknowledged or not. The exchange of vows is a public acknowledgment of an awareness of these divine rights.

It must not be forgotten, however, that while marriage vows are indirectly to God and to the community, they are primarily made by the principals in the marriage to each other. A man and a woman are solemnly promising fidelity to the most sacred union possible to men on earth, as long as both shall live. In Malachi the Lord declares His hatred of divorce (2:14-16) and in Hebrews promises judgment upon "whoremongers and adulterers" (13:4).

The question whether it is ever right to break vows is an acute one. A rule of thumb might be that an evil promise had better be broken than kept. Such a case would surely have been Jeph-thah, whose foolish vow, followed by his stubbornness in keeping it, cost the life of his daughter (Judges 11).

See fidelity, integrity, discipline, character, church, marriage.

For Further Reading: ISBE, 5:3058.

Richard S. Taylor

_W

WALK. See life-style.

WAR. War is the resort of nations to settle issues by force of arms. Wars are always the product of human sinfulness, in either immediate instigation or indirect occasion.

While civilized nations should pursue a policy of peace, it is unlikely that what ought to be done will always be. Jesus understood the hard fact of human sinfulness when He predicted wars and rumors of wars throughout the age (Matt. 24:4-8). Universal peace will be established only by the personal presence and reign of the Prince of Peace.

However, Jesus' prediction is no excuse for failing to work for peace. The advent of the nuclear age has compelled nations to reassess the perils of war and weigh the risk of a nuclear holocaust against the possible gains of military action. Christians also have been prompted to examine anew what is their duty.

Christ undoubtedly established among men a new kind of kingdom, to be extended by spiritual means, not carnal. The only sword in its arsenal is the Sword of the Spirit, which is the Word of God. This Kingdom transcends earthly kingdoms and is compromised when any attempt is made to amalgamate with them. Its objective is the salvation of men for time and eternity; its enemies are sin and Satan; and its methods are prayer, preaching, witnessing, teaching, and if need be, dying.

The problem confronting the believer whose allegiance is committed to the heavenly Kingdom is how to relate now to the old kingdoms, those of earthly political sovereignties.

Radical separatists see only bifurcation between the two kinds of kingdoms with no possibility of the Christian functioning in both, excepting in the minimal sense of living within the law and being a good neighbor. The state is seen as demonic and politics as so thoroughly corrupt that Christians can remain uncontami-nated only by remaining strictly aloof. According to this view the world should be left to run its own affairs. This approach rules out not only participation in war but in legal and police activities. These activities by their very nature require the use of force, which is forbidden, the radical separatists believe.

A more moderate group of pacifists recognize the divine ordering of the state as a necessary means of protecting and controlling sinful men, and they perceive the legitimacy of law enforcement functions. There is some ambivalence concerning how far Christians can engage in this


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necessary activity; this ambivalence extends to the degree in which Christians should involve themselves in the political process, especially in seeking office and playing a part in the formulation of the laws and the system. But even those who see the possibility of combining active citizenship in both kingdoms feel that the higher principles governing the kingdom of Christ prohibit them from any function which might involve them in the taking of life; this of course would include war.

A third group of Christians believes that there is no such sharp conflict between their two levels of citizenship. Their reasons include the biblical position that government is ordained of God, and in bearing the sword, law enforcement is God's minister (Rom. 13:1-7). It is a kind of work made necessary by the mass of sinful people yet in the old kingdom; and because mandated by God, it is righteous, and if righteous, as equally appropriate for the child of God as for the child of the devil. Indeed it would be done better if all judges, enforcement officers, and lawmakers were Christians. They believe further that no activity within this secular frame of reference depends on hate or is incompatible with love; on the contrary those ruled by love will do it better. Love itself demands action against evil.

This group further believes that the Bible recognizes the necessity of at times taking human life, and provides no basis whatsoever for labeling all killing as murder; the entire OT and to a lesser degree the NT assume the contrary. While the NT identifies hate as murder, it does not imply that the minister of God who bears the sword is a murderer.

Again, this group further believes that the legitimate duties of the state include not only protecting citizens from each other but protecting them from international predators. Whether this function is carried out by means of so-called police action through the United Nations, by other alliances, or unilaterally, in any case if the action is to be effective, the possibility of killing, and of even mild action erupting into war, is always present. There are in every generation Hitlers who must be restrained and disarmed. The alternative is capitulation. If capitulation is not acceptable, then nations—including the Christians in them—must bear the burden of deciding what is worth dying for, and acting accordingly. To deny that the cause of freedom, justice, and righteousness have at times been defended or advanced by war is to be blind to the facts of history. Furthermore, it is to forget that God utilizes military action as a means of punishing wicked nations and disciplining His own people, as well as bringing about the political changes He sovereignly wills (Deut. 9:4; 28:49-52; 1 Kings 11:14, 23; et al).

See PACIFISM, MURDER, WRATH, RETRIBUTION (RETRIBUTIVE JUSTICE), PROGRESSIVE REVELATION.