Beacon dictionary of theology

For Further Reading: Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 244-54; GMS, 285-302; Wiley, CT, 2:119-30.

A. Elwood Sanner

TRACTARIANISM. This is the popular name for the Oxford Movement. This movement, headed up by J. H. Newman of Oxford, published Tracts for the Times between 1833 and 1840—and thus was designated Tractarianism. The movement emphasized the authority of ecclesiastics such as bishops, based importantly on the apostolic succession doctrine, and purity of doctrine generally (based on the church's received creeds). The movement suffered decline when its leader, Newman, left Anglicanism and became a Roman Catholic—a rather natural development, based on his interests.

See apostolic succession, anglo-catholicism.

J. Kenneth Grider

TRADITION. Tradition is the beliefs, values, and customs transmitted from one generation to the next, assuring the continuity of the culture or the institution and providing each emerging generation with the stabilizing influence of its heritage. It provides an understanding of the foundations of the community and of the relationship between the individual and the larger fellowship in which he participates.

The idea of tradition is negative in much of modern Protestantism. This is partly due to the general tenor of the recent humanistic period which tends to equate antiquity with obsolescence. It is also partly due to the tension between the Reformation doctrine of sola scriptura and the pronouncements of Roman Catholicism.

Evangelicals are particularly wary because Scripture speaks negatively of human traditions. Jesus told the Pharisees that they had nullified the Word of God through their traditions (Mark 7:13); Paul warned the Colossians against the traditions of men (Col. 2:8); and Peter reminded his readers that they were not redeemed by the futile traditions handed down from their fathers, but through the blood of Christ (1 Pet. 1:18-19).

Modern Bible scholars approach the Bible as the repository of traditions which developed in Israel and the Early Church. These traditions grew out of various situations in the community and came to be accepted as authoritative for the community. This obviously denies the divine inspiration of the Bible and negates any ultimate authority for the Bible.

Tradition plays an important role in the Church and should not be disregarded. The creeds, which formulate the essentials of Christian faith, the interpretation of Scripture, and the theological statements of historic orthodoxy, are traditions, even though they are rooted in Scripture. They reflect the Holy Spirit's ministry of illumination and have a subordinate authority. All traditions are subject to the Word of God.


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See inspiration of the bible, hermeneutics, protestantism, biblical authority

For Further Reading: Harrison, Introduction to the Old
Testament, 19-82; Barrett, Jesus and the Gospel Tradition;
Cullmann, The Early Church, 53-99; Stott, Christ the
Controversialist, 65-89. william B. coker

TRADUCIANISM. This is the belief that the soul is procreated by parental conception along with and in the body. Natural generation thus includes both the spiritual, immaterial faculties of human personality as well as those purely physical organs which can be observed and verified scientifically. This is most in harmony with the Hebrew concept of man as a body-mind unity, and also most congenial to the biblical concept of inherited sinfulness. The alternatives to traduc-ianism are (1) preexistence, i.e., that souls or spirits exist before conception either in the ideal world or in a previous incarnation, and are infused into the embryo or fetus at some point before or at birth; or (2) creationism, i.e., that God creates a personal soul for each conception. Since the creation of a sinful spirit by God is inconceivable, creationism implies that inbred sin is solely physical.

See soul, geneticism, creationism, original sin, preexistence of souls.

For Further Reading: Wiley, CT, 2:26-29, 104; Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 196-201.

Richard S. Taylor

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS. Transactional Analysis (TA) is an approach to interpreting reactions and relationships which has gained widespread acceptance in its practical applications to counselling. As a method of analyzing interpersonal behavior it is widely used in marriage counselling.

Developed as a model by Eric Berne, Transactional Analysis is based on the hypothesis that at any given time we are functioning at either the parent (P), adult (A), or child (C) ego state level. The "parent" level is viewed as the nurturing, correcting aspect of human response. The "child" level represents the carefree, irresponsible, uninhibited level. The "adult" ego state corresponds with the responsible, rational, reasonable level of response.

Using these concepts, any conversation or social interaction can be identified in terms of these three levels. The P-A-C formula is used not only to analyze and interpret communications, but to explain crossed communications which produce misunderstandings and conflict. Communications may be "complementary" or "crossed," "simple" or "ulterior" transactions. Complementary transactions produce agreement and understanding. Crossed transactions usually occur when the participants are operating from different ego states. Simple transactions are communications at the verbal, conscious level. Ulterior transactions are those where the verbal communications have other motivational implications.

The P-A-C formula is also used to identify the unconscious elements and influences from the past on present responses—i.e., to identify irrational elements such as prejudice, internalized parental expectations, and childhood ways of responding. These unconscious elements are described as the "archaic" child or parent, and are seen as "contaminating" or complicating responses to present events and relationships. The archaic parent is made up of attitudes received as a child, primarily of a controlling, manipulative nature. The archaic child is dependent and immature.

The P-A-C formula is an easily understood concept. It can be used to compare the neurotic, psychotic, and sociopathic syndromes in terms easily grasped by the layman.

The concepts are used not only to enable diagnosis and recognition of problem responses, but also in therapy. A growing body of literature traces its practical applications. Though originating in a Freudian psychological approach, it is not necessarily antithetical to the Christian understanding of human nature, in that it sees man rooted in a basic "not O.K." feeling and in need of "okayness."

It is exactly at this point, however, that the sub-Christian, and therefore dangerous, nature of TA is seen. For the "okayness" sought and provided is entirely humanistic and horizontal. There are no conceptual structures for handling sin and guilt or even for their recognition. The real root of dislocated interpersonal relationships is not misunderstanding (as important as that is), but sin. There can be no true "okayness" which ignores God, His forgiveness, and the vertical dimension. To foster an illusion of "okayness" when the spiritual need is not only untouched but ignored, is to perpetrate a deceptive panacea and imperil eternal destiny.

See humanism, holiness, guilt, grow (growth), carnality and humanity, sin.

For Further Reading: Berne, Games People Play; Harris, I'm OX, You're OX; Reuter, Who Says I'm OX?

James M. Ridgway

TRANSGRESSION. See sin

TRANSCENDENCE. Transcendence is affirmed of God by theists. It is God's primacy over, but also


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527

His wholly otherness from, the universe which He has created. The transcendence of God rules out any form of pantheism, but may be viewed as complementary to immanence.

To be unsure about the transcendence of God is to be unsure about the character of God. With no absolute basis of judgment, human behavior is beyond condemnation, a notion clearly perceived by Ralph Waldo Emerson who developed a philosophy of religion which saw man as essentially good. The divine transcendence means that above man and all earthly affairs is an independent Creator, Preserver, Observer, Law-giver, and Judge. Man is dependent on this God for his very being, and every action is subject to God's scrutiny and evaluation. Because God is transcendent He is free to act upon and within His creation without being assimilated by it or subjugated to it.

The transcendence of God is thus positively related to existence and character. For it is the majesty of His power which moves us to declare as did the Psalmist: "The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament sheweth his handywork. Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night sheweth knowledge" (Ps. 19:1-2).

See theism, immanence, attributes (divine).

For Further Reading: Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 61; DeWolf, A Theology of the Living Church, 117-23; Wiley, CT, 1:223, 279, 284-89. MERNE A. HARRIS

TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION. Transcendental Meditation (TM), also known as the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI), is a movement founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, whose claim is that TM brings relaxation and creative thinking. While claiming to be neither a religion nor a philosophy, but a science, it is root and branch a part of Hinduism. Its founder was born Mahesh Brasad Warma in 1918 in India. Upon completing his B.A. in physics at Allabad University, he became a disciple of His Divinity Swami Brahamanda Saraswati, popularly known as Guru Dev (Divine Leader), who commissioned him to find a simplified form of meditation and spread his master's teaching to the West.

In 1959 he arrived in California with his meditative technique, founded the Spiritual Regeneration Movement, and gained followers in the entertainment world. When in the late 60s the movement declined, a secular image was developed. Now coordinated under the World Plan Executive Council (WPEC), it presents a scientific image through such peer groups as Student International Meditation Society (SIMS), American

Foundation for the Science of Creative Intelligence (AFSCI) for those in business, and International Meditation Society (IMS) for the general public.

While TM's appeal is that it is a science for increasing relaxation and mental productivity, it actually is an expression of Vedantic Hinduism. The meditator is inducted into this TM with a prayer in Sanskrit to the various Hindu gods, including a succession of grand masters, now elevated to deity, by the presentation of offerings of fresh flowers, fresh fruit, and a clean white handkerchief, and by the bestowment of a mantra. This supposedly neutral sound, repeated as the vehicle of meditation, is frequently the name of a Hindu god.

See cults, occult (occultism), orthodoxy meditation.

For Further Reading: Boa, Cults, World Religions, and
You, 156-66; Ellwood, Religious and Spiritual Groups in
Modem North America, 231-35; Means, The Mystical
Maze, 133-46; Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Transcendental
Meditation, formerly titled: The Science of Being and the
Art of Living Lewis, What Everyone Should Know About
Transcendental Meditation. DAVID L. CUBIE

TRANSFIGURATION. All three of the Synoptics record the "transfiguration" of Jesus on a mountain and in the presence of Peter, James, and John (Matt. 17:2; Mark 9:2; Luke 9:28-36). There He "took on the form of his heavenly glory" (Arndt, Gingrich).

The early tradition of the Church identified Mount Tabor as the Mount of Transfiguration, but many scholars today consider Mount Her-mon, much higher and nearer to where Jesus was at that time according to the account, to be a more likely possibility. Luke tells us that Jesus took the three disciples there to pray. In the presence of His disciples, the body of Jesus was changed into the splendor of His preexistent glory, with His clothing and even His face (cf. Matthew) taking on a brightness far surpassing any earthly glow (see Mark 9:3, nasb). Then Moses and Elijah (Mark reverses this order) appeared and talked with Jesus, which Luke explains was a discussion concerning His soon-coming exodus.

Moses and Elijah are usually viewed as simply representing the law and the prophets of the OT. Yet their presence appears to be more an "attendance" on Jesus, and some have even suggested they had come to salute their successor. A further reason for their coming could be that Elijah was identified as the "forerunner" prophet (cf. Mai. 4:5) and was thus making an eschatological appearance.

As on so many occasions, Peter totally mis

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■TRANSUBSTANTIATION

understood the significance of what was happening. His suggestion that "tabernacles" be built for Jesus and His two guests suggests a finality of mission rather than the preparation that it was. Then a cloud overshadowed them, concealing from the disciples the three who were conversing. But the cloud, often seen in the OT as the tabernacle of God, proved to be a vehicle of divine self-revelation as well as self-veiling (cf. Cranfield, The Gospel According to St. Mark). From it God spoke: "This is My beloved Son, listen to Him!" (Mark 9:7, nasb). Here is the same basic language given to Jesus (Luke and Mark) and to those in attendance (Matthew) at His baptism.

As might be expected, the three disciples were terrified, but the touch of Jesus (Matthew) brought them assurance. He then instructed them to keep secret what they had experienced.

The event is similar to the language of theophany in the OT. Matthew clearly identifies their experience as a vision (17:9, the Greek term being horama). Mark's statement that "all at once they looked around . . ." (9:8, nasb) suggests the actions of people recovering from a vision.

Of greatest importance is the significance of the event. For whose benefit did it occur? Was it only for the disciples? Although we shall see that this was undoubtedly the primary purpose, it also ministered to Jesus. Shortly before, He had received human confirmation of His messianic mission at Caesarea Philippi. Could it not be that, at least in part, the mission of Moses and Elijah was to bring to Jesus assurance from another world as He faced the Cross? They did discuss His exodus! Jesus was human, and the Cross was a terrifying and ugly prospect.

The context is important for understanding the message of the Transfiguration. In all three accounts, the experience follows closely the Great Confession. Jesus' first prediction of His passion on that occasion brought a scandalous response from Peter. Significantly, Jesus warned that whoever is "ashamed of me and of my words" (Mark 8:38; Luke 9:26; cf. Matt. 16:27) would one day face Him as an eschatological judge. But He had encouraging words for those who listened to His words. "And He was saying to them, 'Truly I say to you, there are some of those who are standing here who shall not taste of death until they see the kingdom of God after it has come with power'" (Mark 9:1, nasb).

In the days of the Early Church, this most difficult promise of Jesus was seen fulfilled in the Transfiguration. Peter, James, and John were "some of those ... standing here," and what they experienced could well be understood as seeing the kingdom of God. This is a choice example of "proleptic revelation." In the Transfiguration the disciples saw (although they did not then understand) in anticipation, or prefigurement, the coming Resurrection. Even further, the Resurrection would be seen as a preview of the Parousia. Thus Cranfield says that "both the Resurrection and the Parousia may be said to have been pro-leptically present in the Transfiguration" (288).

Such an interpretation gives the fullest possible significance to the Father's words: "Listen to Him!" They sound a solemn warning to those who reject or ignore the message of Jesus, while at the same time they bring the strongest assurance to those who believe. As Jesus faced the climax of His humiliation, for a brief moment the veil was drawn and we see Him in all His glory— transfigured.

See christ, theophany, kingdom of god.

For Further Reading: Lane, "Mark," New International
Commentary; Cranfield, "Mark," The Cambridge Greek
Testament Commentary, Tasker, "Matthew," Tyndale Bible
Commentary; Ramsay, The Glory of God and the Trans-
figuration of Christ. Richard E. Howard

TRANSIGNIFICATION. This is the view that in the Eucharist there is a transformation in what the bread and wine signify—so that they come to signify the body and blood of Christ. It is a recent variation in the Roman Catholic theory of tran-substantiation. Pope Paul VI officially opposed the variant view and disallowed its being taught by Roman Catholic scholars. It was only to be expected that the pope would oppose the teaching, because it was a basic divergence from their official view: that the substance of the elements is transformed into the actual body and blood of Christ.

See transubstantiation, impanation, con-

substantiation. J. Kenneth Grider
TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS. See

reincarnation.

TRANSUBSTANTIATION. Transubstantiation is the Roman Catholic doctrine that the bread and wine of the Eucharist become the actual body of Christ when they are blessed by the words of the priest: "This is my body and my blood." This teaching leans heavily on Aristotelian and medieval scholastic conceptions and would be impossible to state in terms of any modern metaphysics.

The word transubstantiation is a compound of two Latin particles (trans = "across" and substan-

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tia = "substance") and suggests that the invisible substance or essence of the bread becomes the essence of the body of Christ and the substance of the juice or wine becomes the essence of Christ's blood. The "essential substance," not visible to the eye, is to be contrasted to the unchanged "accidental properties," visible to the five senses, such as color, taste, and smell. Although the "accidents" remain the same, the miracle of this transference takes place at the moment of blessing by the priest.

The Protestant church has never accepted this teaching. Indeed the chief divisions of the 16th century were over the interpretation of the Lord's Supper.

There are three dominant views among Protestants regarding the Lord's Supper. Martin Luther, closest to the Roman position, taught "consubstantiation" (con meaning "with"), the reality of Christ's body and blood is in the elements "like light is in your eye." John Calvin taught a spiritual presence which was received or known only by the elect. Ulrich Zwingli, the Swiss Reformer, taught a symbolic presence in which the sacrament is barely more than a mental remembrance, a picturesque way of recalling Calvary.

Most Wesleyan theologians have held to a position closer to Calvin, with the stipulation that the spiritual blessing is not reserved for only a few.

See CONSUBSTANTIATION, SACRAMENTS, SACRAMEN-TARIANISM, HOLY COMMUNION, EUCHARIST, REALISM IN THEOLOGY.

For Further Reading: Parris, John Wesley's Doctrine of the Sacraments, 62-96; Wiley, CT, 3:138-210; Lawson, Comprehensive Handbook of Christian Doctrine, 179-81.

John A. Knight

TRIBULATION. The concept of tribulation is a prominent doctrine in the NT and in some quarters today. It practically becomes a test for one's orthodoxy. The word for "tribulation" occurs no less than 19 times.

According to the NT, the Christian can hope for nothing in this world except tribulation. Indeed, the basic summons of Jesus to follow Him means to take up one's cross in discipleship (Mark 8:34; 10:21). This is often interpreted as carrying burdens, but a cross is not burden; it was an instrument of death. When a man follows Jesus, he can expect nothing but tribulation which leads to death. When the seed of the kingdom of God is sown in the ground, tribulation may come upon hearers who have received the word only superficially. This is the message of the seeds falling among thorns. Weeds spring up and choke the word (Matt. 13:21). In John Jesus said, "Tn the world you have tribulation; but be of good cheer, I have overcome the world'" (John 16:33, rsv). Luke wrote Paul's reminder that "through many tribulations we must enter the kingdom of God" (Acts 14:22, rsv).

Paul constantly suffered tribulations, but he gloried in them because only by experiencing them could he complete his apostolic mission (2 Cor. 7:4; Eph. 3:13). Addressing the seven churches in Asia, John speaks of himself: "Your brother, and companion in tribulation" (Rev. 1:9). Believers are to react in such a way that they glory in tribulation (Rom. 5:3), and therefore they can be patient in tribulation (12:12).

The NT teaches that at the end of the age there will occur a time of great tribulation. "For then there will be great tribulation, such as has not been from the beginning of the world until now, no, and never will be. And if those days had not been shortened, no human being would be saved; but for the sake of the elect those days will be shortened" (Matt. 24:21-22, rsv). In other words, the persecution which will come at the end of the age in the Great Tribulation will be qualitatively no different from what the Church has to expect from the world throughout her history. The only difference will be the intensity of the tribulation, not its method.

This is spelled out in the Revelation. The beast (Antichrist) will be "allowed to make war on the saints and to conquer them" (Rev. 13:7, rsv). But in a later vision, John sees a victorious Church standing before the throne of God. We are told that these are the people who had conquered the beast and its image. Here is a superficial contradiction: The beast conquers the saints, but the saints conquer the beast. What can this mean? The point is that the martyrdom of the saints is their victory. The beast tries to compel them to worship him. When they refuse, they are martyred. But their martyrdom is proof of their loyalty to Christ. Luke records a similar saying of Jesus: "Some of you they will put to death . .. But not a hair of your head will perish" (Luke 21:16, 18; cf. Rev. 14:9-13).

The revelation above shows us that the time of Great Tribulation will also be a time of the outpouring of God's wrath. But at the threshold of that time, John sees 144,000 who are sealed in their foreheads that they may not suffer the wrath of God. These afflictions are not human, but the outpouring of the wrath of God upon the beast and his worshippers (16:2). The Church will not suffer the wrath of God.

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TRICHOTOMY—TRINITY, THE HOLY

See RAPTURE, SECOND COMING OF CHRIST, REVELATION (BOOK OF).