Combining formal, non-formal and informal learning for workforce skill development

Increased automation

In table 1 we see that that the automation of manual processes has been pervasive across most industries (especially the retail industry) and has speeded up formerly labour-intensive tasks or processes. It has also increased the skill levels and knowledge required for workers in research and development, marketing and management. In the retail industry major corporations have focussed on the development of the management skills of trainee managers. To this end they have also established specific training organisations to deliver nationally accredited formal training.

However, increased automation (including scanning technologies enabled by the development of product bar-codes) has not made the work of sales assistants (especially in supermarkets and no-frills retailers and fast-food outlets) any more rewarding or challenging, and may have made ‘an already monotonous job even more so’ (Bernhardt 1999, p.27).

E-learning

Expansion of information and communication technologies (including the internet and company-specific variations of this application) has enabled organisations to combine formal, non-formal and informal learning approaches in new ways. It has also opened up channels of communication (including email, chat-rooms, discussion forums, and interactive websites) between different departments and levels of employees. Providing opportunities for all employees to make use of such channels of communication (either to share information among each other or with management) can also help in the development of innovative practice and workplace learning for both individuals and the organisation. The open sharing of information between employees and senior managers is especially evident in the ‘speak-up culture’ promoted in the Virgin group of companies (Callan 2004).

Case studies of organisations providing e-learning for their staff (including for compliance training) conducted in 2004 by Misko et al. (2004) found that the availability of online technologies has made it possible for workers to undertake learning (formal, informal and non-formal) at times and at locations that suit their work obligations and social commitments. This means that workers can engage in learning at their workstation during work time or work breaks, and at home. It has allowed organisations to deliver non-formal company training to customise their delivery to the learning needs of individuals. Moreover, it has enabled companies operating in highly regulated environments (like the financial and airlines industry) to use e-learning as a key means for ensuring that all employees who provide relevant services remain compliant with the legislation. Nevertheless it is important to note that e-learning on its own is rarely used and that organisations ensure that independent online learning is often preceded by a suitable period of non-formal learning in induction sessions.

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  QANTAS College Online is the training arm of QANTAS Airways. It enables staff to develop technical and interpersonal skills and knowledge required for legislative compliance, job performance and relating with work colleagues and customers. Staff may engage in self-paced, online short courses and more traditional classroom-based courses supported by internal and external tutors. Key to the success of the online approach is its ability to reach great numbers of workers who need to remain compliant with specific standards. Major drawbacks of the self-paced online approach for the organisation relates to the cost of giving all employees ready access to a computer, and ensuring that course content remains current and relevant and the display engages learners. For individuals it is maintaining the motivation to complete the course, and having adequate levels of language and literacy to participate in training.
  

Whether e-learning is stand-alone or blended with other forms of learning, it requires:

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  easy access to computers, the internet and email and technical support personnel
  
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  minimal time in firing up computers and downloading information
  
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  timely feedback from trainers, and
  
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  adequate language and literacy skills to participate in learning.
  
  
  

Conclusions

In this review we have been basically interested in the different ways that formal, non-formal and informal learning are and can be combined to provide effective skill development. This is particularly relevant today in societies like ours affected by workforce ageing and declining cohorts of young workers. Current skill shortages in the traditional trades and also in health professions provide us with a reason for developing and accessing alternative sources of skills. One response is to explore how the different forms of learning can be combined to accelerate the completion of training and required qualifications and licences.

However, it is also important to note that it is not various combinations of formal, non-formal and informal learning that will always ensure that appropriate learning takes place. Rather it is the alignment of form to function and the opportunity for learners to put any learning into practice.

Key findings

Our review of the literature indicates that formal, non-formal and informal learning tend to be used both separately and in various combinations¹⁶ to provide organisations and new and existing workers with required and desired skills and knowledge. Bearing in mind that informal learning (that which happens on the job) is the most common of the three forms of learning, organisations typically use non-formal learning provided by in-house trainers or external consultants to introduce new ways of working or improve knowledge and skill. In addition, increased access to internet and information and communication technologies has accelerated the speed of communication between learners and trainers within and between organisations. It has also generally provided easy access to a vast array of learning resources.

Combinations of off-the-job and on-the-job learning arrangements

The most popular form of combining formal and informal (and at times non-formal) learning is observed in apprenticeships and traineeships, now also available to secondary school students in Australia. Here learners will supplement the theory and practice provided in formal off-the-job and on-the-job training with knowledge, skill and experience acquired in work. In some cases learning acquired through non-formal situations may also be used to support claims for applications for necessary licences and entrance to certain jobs (for example, first aid certificates used to satisfy occupational health and safety legislation).

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  In some programs apprentices and trainees may access both knowledge and theory (usually provided off-site in training institutions) and learning on the job without having to leave the work site. These ‘fully on-the-job’ programs provide good examples of how formal and informal learning can be combined to lead to the same outcomes. Nevertheless there have been a number of critics of the ‘fully on-the-job’ concept in terms of it limiting access to a wider range of skills and knowledge and interaction with peers from other organisations.
  
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  A key approach to workforce skills development to meet current skills shortages in the traditional trades (but also in the community services sector) is to accelerate the completion of training and qualifications. Typically this involves the recognition of skills of existing workers through formal RPL mechanisms and to provide formal training to address any skill gaps. Intensive up-front formal training followed or alternated with blocks of on-the-job experience is also used for acceleration, as is renegotiation of the duration of contracts.
  
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  An innovative approach used for apprenticeship training in Germany has been the learning bay. Here a space for learning is created next to a specific function area. This space is equipped for on-the-job and off-the-job learning.
  

Work integrated learning

Much has also been written about the need for organisations to develop a culture of learning often exemplified by integrating opportunity for learning in the everyday life of workers. We have noted that such a culture of learning can only be possible if senior managers and line managers provide support in terms of resources and time for learning, and individuals themselves take up the opportunities provided. The integration of ‘doing’ with ‘learning’ happens in a variety of learning arrangements.

Cadetships and internships

Combination of formal, non-formal and informal learning is observed in the operation of cadetships and internships, often used for learners preparing for occupations in the trades, professions and associate professions. Such programs (especially in business and industry but also in the military) are also often used to recruit employees (often talented university students who have already completed part of their training or graduates). Organisations will typically pay for a component of formal training and provide the required employment to give learners on-the-job experience. An internship is a mandatory component for those preparing to be medical practitioners. Key to the success of such programs is the extended on-the-job experience that cadets and interns obtain in a supervised environment.

Action learning

Our review has highlighted the variety of ways that organisations integrate learning into the work life of individuals. Approaches which are associated with the concept of action learning are common. Here individuals come together in groups to discuss organisational issues and develop recommendations for action. They can be organised around quality improvement initiatives, or established to provide support and encouragement for users of particular technologies and products. Such groups are identified in our review as:

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  communities of practice, often characterised by a common passion for a particular issue
  
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  quality circles, aimed at improving the quality of products and processes
  
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  incubators, where learners get together to come up with innovative products or services
  
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  skills laboratories, which allow learners to practise skills in simulated environments before being expected to apply such skills in the real workplace.
  

Formal recognition practices

Formal recognition of learning that happens in informal and non-formal contexts (RPL) can be used to open up pathways to qualifications, and especially to accelerate apprenticeships in areas of trade skill shortages. In some cases (especially in the VET sector) these can be used to gain full qualifications. RPL has also been used with a number of student and community groups. Nevertheless uptake of formal RPL processes continues to be low. Although we cannot discount the role of student preferences for learning things from scratch, researchers have noted the role played by overly bureaucratic systems presenting evidence to support claims for RPL.

Coaching and mentoring

Although these terms are sometimes used interchangeably they generally relate to providing guidance for workers who need or desire to develop required skills and knowledge. The lack of such guidance is often used to explain why a lot of learning that happens in non-formal and informal concepts is not transferred to the job. Such forms can be formally structured arrangements or informal relationships between individuals. The coaching relationship is typified in the training of elite sportspeople and teams. In organisations it is used for the purposes of skill development and career advancement for regular employees and executives. It is also used to help re-dress economic and social disadvantage by helping such groups to make best use of opportunities and personal skills. Key to its success is the sharing of mutual goals, and the effort and time applied by both partners to making it work.

Mentoring is typically a voluntary relationship between the mentor and the individual being mentored. Nevertheless we have also documented a mandatory mentorship program aimed at improving the skills and knowledge of beginner teachers in the state of New York. Although mentorship is used in workplaces or across industries it can also be used in the community and in schools to address social disadvantage.

Successful coaching and mentorship programs are based on the development of trust, confidentiality and respect. The time spent in mentorship meetings and the skills and expertise of the mentor are especially important. Bearing this in mind it is also important to involve would-be coaches and mentors in professional development programs to enable them to acquire the skills to undertake their roles.

Diversifying jobs and career pathways

Our review has also found that organisations may diversify jobs and career pathways to develop innovation, extend learning and reward employees. The typical approaches are to:

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  redesign jobs to enable employees to experience different organisational functions
  
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  rotate individuals between jobs to enable them to get a full understanding of the mission, roles and responsibilities of each branch (typical in graduate programs)
  
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  cross-skill or multi-skill workers so that they are able to perform a range of activities within the same job or across jobs (typically used in small business where people have to cover for each other).
  

Organisations may also restructure career pathways so that workers can advance in careers without having to follow the typical path to senior management. Instead they may be promoted in pathways which enable them to keep their specialist capacities.

Using technology for compliance and workplace training

We have also highlighted the increased use of information and communication technologies in all forms of learning and across industry. Online learning has been found to be especially useful for compliance training, namely because it helps to demonstrate that organisations have provided necessary information for employees. Nevertheless it is important that trainers make sure that individuals have actually logged onto the site to undertake the compliance training required and to update content to ensure currency with changes to legislation. The use of the internet has also been especially useful for providing learners with a vast array of resources, and with a speedy communication channel to trainers and other learners. Although there are courses which are delivered fully online there is an increasing trend to use online learning in combination with other forms of learning. Whether e-learning is used independently or in combination with other forms of learning its success depends on users having easy access to the technology, and to technical and learning support and feedback.