Coaching and mentoring
There is general agreement that where workplace off-the-job training falls down is the lack of on-the-job support for practice of skills and knowledge learnt in formal or non-formal learning programs. Coaching and mentoring by supervisors, managers or more experienced work colleagues, are increasingly being adopted in organisations to support the learning acquired in more formal contexts.
Sometimes these terms are used interchangeably. For example, Billett, McCann and Scott (1998) define a mentor as someone ‘who guides, supports and coaches in the workplace’. Whatever the definition used, both concepts are concerned with the provision of guidance and support to less experienced or knowledgeable others. Both are based on using the learning acquired in formal studies and non-formal training to help improve informal learning and performance on the job, and career development.
Coaching for career development
Coaching can be described as ‘an ongoing process of helping people achieve results’ (Development Dimensions International 1987). It can be used with ordinary employees as well as with executives.
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The Daimler Chrysler Corporation has implemented a Career Partnership program where talented university students, within two years of completing their courses, sign an agreement with Daimler Chrysler to become junior members with the company. In return the company promises them a job with the company after graduation and a personalised career development program. A Daimler Chrysler executive is appointed as a career coach and acts as a personal mentor identifying specific learning opportunities including training in communication and presentation skills and conflict management and negotiation. A personal development score card is kept by the career coach to monitor the individual’s progress. A Career Day is also organised where junior members have the opportunity to meet with top executives in the program. Once the junior member has completed the internship he enters senior membership phase where the career of the individual is further supported by access to regular feedback on performance and special training.
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Coaching for executives (also known as professional coaching) also applies the coaching concepts used with ordinary employees. However, professional executive coaches are generally external to the organisation, and are employed directly by the executive seeking the coaching. Less often they are employed by the organisations to provide a set of coaching services and support for executives. This external locus of professional coaching provides executives with relative freedom to discuss issues that concern them about their own companies, and helps to develop an environment built on openness, confidentiality and trust. There is generally no reporting back to management about the work done in coaching sessions (Abbott et al. 2006). A South Australian variant of professional coaching is observed to some extent in the services provided by the CEO (Chief Executive Officer) Institute, which provides a combination of non-formal and informal training for managers and executives of South Australian businesses <http://www.ceo.com.au/188.html>.
Mentoring
Mentoring is often associated with the act of providing guidance, assistance and informal support to less experienced work colleagues and new employees. Support for this notion of mentorship is supported by Spencer (1999, cited in Rolfe-Flette 2002) who distinguishes the mentor relationship from other forms by noting that it is based on encouragement, constructive comments, openness, mutual trust, respect and a willingness to learn and share. Billet, McCann & Scott (1998) call this form of learning ‘guided learning’. Although an individual may provide such support to a group of individuals, typically it is a ‘one-on-one’ arrangement.
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There are many ways that companies decide to implement such formal mentorship programs. Typically a formal program (often voluntary) is established at corporate or departmental level and a request is made for willing and more experienced staff to become part of the program. Less experienced employees are also asked to join the program and are matched to one of the staff who have the skills, knowledge and attributes that they seek. Once the relationship is set up it is up to the participating pairs to conduct regular meetings. Such arrangements have varying levels of success and partners must apply considerable effort and time to keeping the partnership alive. Details on a mandatory mentorship program for beginner teachers in the State of New York and a specific mentoring program for women in the information technology industry are provided in appendix C.
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Graduate programs aimed to attract and retain talented individuals (often graduates just out of university) represent a different variant of formal mentorship programs. For example, AXA Australia has a three-year graduate program and rotates graduates through different parts of the business every six months (12 months for those training to be actuaries). Training plans that are customised to the individuals aim to help graduates progress through the organisation. Fortnightly meetings with leaders across the business are set up to help graduates improve business skills and insights and share in their experiences.
Although mentorship is especially used in workplaces, it is also used to achieve social justice in terms of breaking cycles of disadvantage organisations by providing individuals from disadvantaged groups with support, guidance and assistance.
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The ‘Big Sister’ and ‘Big Brother’ mentoring programs aim to re-dress social disadvantage among young people in the United States. Key to the success of any such mentorship program is the development of relationships based on trust, confidentiality and respect (Volkoff & Perry 1995).
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In Australia mentorship programs have also been used with students in secondary schools and especially with those from disadvantaged areas. Choi et al. (2001) report on a mentorship program involving the DHL worldwide express company and secondary school students from a high school in a low socio-economic and high non-English speaking background area in Sydney. The company sponsors two mentoring programs: a 10-week program for Year 10s (the 10-UP program) and a nine-week program for Year 9s (the 9-UP program). It matches students to mentors from the DHL company on the basis of an application completed by students. The aim of the program is for students to learn about different career directions and for mentors to share their particular expertise and knowledge. The program has been successful with students developing skills for using different computer packages and gaining vocational placements with organisations of their choice.
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