Although we have separately described the general characteristics of the three forms of learning, there is a blurring of the boundaries between formal, non-formal and informal processes of learning. For example, students can help each other to learn more about the best way to use computer applications (informal learning) so that they can put these to good use in preparing for assignments or examinations (formal learning). Informal learning can also include teaching oneself about any sort of thing through making a conscious decision to learn about a specific skill and then using a variety of strategies to acquire the required information and practising the required skill.
This may include asking friends, family, work colleagues or other experts who already know how to apply a particular skill. The knowledge gained in these ways can then be used in assessments aimed at recognising prior learning which can lead to progression through formal courses of study.
Formal training and learning can also happen in spaces associated with informal learning. For example, workplace supervisors can take some time during work time to sit down with students to explain the theory behind a particular technique or process. Such explanations can also help students to complete assignments required for the completion of formal courses.
The skills acquired in non-formal programs can also be used in formal and informal learning. For example, the team work, problem-solving and leadership skills and attributes acquired in personal development programs (like senior levels of girl guides, air cadets, scouts, Duke of Edinburgh Awards) can be used in assessments for components of formal qualifications and informally to help work colleagues and family and friends solve relevant problems in difficult situations.
Although combining formal, non-formal and informal learning strategies makes sense in terms of providing a more coherent and holistic approach to workforce skills development, it is important to understand that the strategies that are most effective are those that fit the particular context of the organisation and the particular nature of the skill involved. At times it will make sense to keep these approaches quite separate from each other. For example, when employees are being introduced to a skill or innovation that they have not encountered before it may be better to provide a more structured format with some opportunities for practice in non-formal learning programs away from the job itself. At other times, especially when individuals are applying this to their job, it will make sense to focus on on-the-job (or informal) independent or supported learning. This may include using online interactive methods for learning about applications.
However skills and knowledge are acquired, they are of limited use if they cannot be used effectively later; that is, if they do not transfer easily to similar or different contexts. The characteristics of effective transfer emphasise the importance of context-specific information and experience, the effectiveness of initial learning, and the ability of individuals to apply what they have learnt to new contexts (a detailed treatment of transfer issues are reported in Misko 1995).
In the following sections we provide examples of the different combinations of formal, non-formal and informal learning that we have found in the literature.
More specifically we discuss:
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traditional and accelerated programs of alternated off- and on-the-job training leading to formal qualifications used in formal apprenticeships and traineeships
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work-integrated learning programs used for trades and related workers, professionals and associate professionals including cadetships and internships, and a variety of strategies associated with action learning and formal recognition for advancement in formal training programs
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on-the-job training using mentoring and coaching programs (including programs for executives, graduates, general employees and disadvantaged groups)
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learning which is acquired and embedded in job redesign, job rotation, and career restructuring
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the use of technology in compliance and workplace training.
We end by drawing some major conclusions.
Alternating on- and
off-the-job training
In the following sections we take time to talk about the more common methods for combining two or more of the three forms of learning. The more common case is to combine formal off-the-job and on-the-job learning with informal learning to meet requirements for formal qualifications and accreditations. In some cases learning acquired through non-formal situations may also be used to support claims for applications for necessary licences and entrance to certain jobs (for example, first aid certificates used to satisfy occupational health and safety legislation).
Historically, vocational training has included a period of formal studies alternating with a period of on-the-job training in companies. In Australia this is especially demonstrated in entry-level training for apprenticeship and traineeship programs. An environment of skill shortages (especially in the traditional trades and in the community health sector) has seen the implementation of recognition of prior learning processes to accelerate the completion of apprenticeships and traineeships in these areas.
Apprenticeships
In Australia apprentices in the traditional trades (including metal, electrical, electronics, automotive, food, construction and building, hairdressing, tailoring, watchmaking and locksmithing) follow the more or less conventional pathway to formal qualifications and trade certificates. The apprentices sign a contract of training with an employer in which the employer promises to respect responsibilities to provide appropriate training and work for the apprentice and the apprentice promises to undertake the training and work as expected.
The employer may also include a group training company that hires out the apprentice to one or more businesses (host employers) for a fee. In some cases employers may want to keep the apprentice for the whole of the duration of his or her apprenticeship; in other cases apprentices are rotated to different enterprises during their apprenticeship.
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Apprentices complete a program of training which blends formal learning (often acquired through formal training courses delivered by registered training organisations off the job, and on-the-job training delivered by workplace supervisors) and informal learning which happens as a result of experience in the job. In some cases learning which has occurred in non-formal learning programs can be used to contribute to formal qualifications or components of qualifications (for example, first aid certificate). The formal learning component helps apprentices acquire relevant knowledge and theory, as well as providing opportunities for practical skill development in simulated workplace settings (such as college automotive workshops or hospitality function rooms) as well as on the job.
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The informal learning component is also acquired through engagement in daily work processes and interaction with peers and more experienced work colleagues. It also helps apprentices apply their skills and knowledge to real work situations and processes.
This neat combination of alternating off- and on-the-job training applies to the bulk of apprentices, especially in the traditional trades. However, there are also programs in some trades which are defined as being fully on the job. It is in these programs (more often applying to trainees than apprentices) that we will see more clearly the practical combination of off-the-job and on-the-job learning.
Fuller & Unwin (2004) believe that the need for apprentices (and all employees in general) to also attend off-the-job training (leading to formal qualifications) provides them an opportunity to meet others engaged in similar learning, reflect on their learning away from their jobs, and gain ‘access to theoretical knowledge and conceptual knowledge that would be unlikely to be made available solely through experience on the job’ (p.139). In addition, the qualifications gained can lead to further education and training pathways.
‘Fully on-the-job’ traineeships
‘Fully on-the-job’ traineeships are programs in which trainees will undertake all (or almost all) of their learning (formal, non-formal and informal) at the workplace. These programs provide definite benefits for employers and trainees in terms of customising the training to suit the needs of the workplace and having the trainee at the workplace for the entire (or almost entire) time. A review of traineeships in office administration and small business in South Australia (Department of Education, Training and Employment 1999)11 found that employers valued these forms of training for trainees because they provided value for money and because the trainees were able to develop valuable occupational skills and knowledge. Trainees viewed them as useful pathways into employment. These ‘fully on-the-job’ programs fell into disrepute when reviews of programs in other places found that some employers were rorting the system to obtain the employer incentives. Nevertheless for those employers who were applying the concepts in the ways that were intended, the ‘fully on-the-job’ programs provided some needed training for those pockets of small business for which there had not been any formal training.
School-based apprenticeships and traineeships
Students in schools are also able to enter a contract of training with an employer (often a group training company) while they are completing their formal studies at school. Typically such programs will require apprentices and trainees to spend a specified amount of time in the workplace or in a simulated workplace (for example, a commercial kitchen or vineyard attached to the school) and some time in formal off-the-job training delivered by a registered training organisation. Time in the workplace will be spent on workplace tasks; time in off-the-job training will be spent on knowledge or theory components.
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