Contents Chapter 1 Leadership in Postcolonial Africa: An Introduction 1
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L E A D E R S H I P I N P O S T C O L O N I A L A F R I C A 23 for appointing her sons to ministerial and other top government positions. Nevertheless, the picture that emerges of Johnson Sirleaf from Pailey’s chapter is one of an effective leader, one that radically departs from the norm of lame leadership in post- colonial Africa. In chapter 9 , Dorcas Ettang raises the question as to whether the recent emergence of female heads of state/political elite in Africa actually makes a difference in leadership styles or the norms generally associated with male-centric, patriarchal cul- tures of political leadership in postcolonial Africa. Drawing from the failure of state theory and neopatrimonial interpretations of African political leadership, Ettang examines the leadership styles of Liberia’s President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and Malawi’s ex-president Joyce Hilda Banda to determine whether female styles of leadership are “nurturing new democratic and inclusive norms or whether current norms are being entrenched further. Does it make a difference that a woman is the leader?” In chapter 10 , Evelyne Ello Hart uses the metaphor of an African medicinal plant to describe what she calls “ transforming- servant-leadership” (Greenleaf 1977; Burns 1978) to highlight the leadership roles played by women in her own family in her native Ivory Coast as well as a group of African women immi- grants in the city of Portland, Oregon. Founded in 2003, the African Women’s Coalition (AWC) in Portland engaged hun- dreds of women from 32 countries in projects that encouraged and empowered them to tackle their day-to-day challenges through the exercise of transforming-servant-leadership. The AWC, acting in collaboration with local and national agencies, facilitated the integration of refugee and immigrant Africans into their host societies and communities. In chapter 11 :, Joseph Ayee reflects on his experiences in academic leadership, as professor, head of department, dean of faculty, deputy vice-chancellor, and rector in universities across Africa for over a period of 35 years. While acknowledging that there is a growing body of literature on leadership, Ayee argues that there exists a lacuna in studies of academic leadership in Africa. In the light of increasing costs of education around the world, widening access pressures, concerns over international recruitment of students and scholars, and academic competition Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 B A B A G . J A L L O W 24 in an increasingly globalized world, Ayee concludes that the study of academic leadership has never been more important. Taken together, the chapters in this volume suggest a depar- ture from the notion that all or even most postcolonial African leadership was failed leadership. While the great majority of the first generation of independent African leaders clearly failed to effectively adapt to the challenges of new nation-statehood, their very failure often served as an impetus for the emergence of good leadership. Postcolonial Africa has also seen the rise of powerful female leaders—political and civic—as well as the emergence of religious leaders like Bishop Djomo in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The trend appears to be toward a rise in the occur- rence of good leadership since, as suggested above, dictators are a dying breed in Africa as elsewhere. Welcome to leadership in postcolonial Africa. Notes 1
. I stress transformative-servant leadership because transformative leadership alone could potentially suggest a hierarchical relationship that concentrates almost exclusive power in the hands of the leader and reduces constituents to little more than passive followers and recipients of authority and inspiration from above. 2 .
The fact that Ghana Airways has long been off the skies is reflective of a failure of leadership in post-Nkrumah Ghana. 3 .
ADM 5/3/143, Ghana National Archives. 4
. ADM 5/3/143, Ghana National Archives. 5 .
ADM 5/3/143, Ghana National Archives. 6
. ADM 5/3/143, Ghana National Archives. 7 .
Oyatambwe, Eglise Catholique , 38–39 (cited by Carney, this volume). 8 .
Nzongola-Ntajala notes the irony of adopting Zaire as an “indig- enous name” for Congo. The name originated with the Portuguese explorer Diego Cao who arrived at the mouth of the Congo river in 1482 and misunderstood the name of the local river as “Nzadi” (or “great river”); this was later transliterated as “Zaire” (Nzongola- Ntajala, Congo from Leopold to Kabila , 54, cited by Carney, this volume). 9 .
For a thorough overview of Mobutu’s struggle with the Catholic church during the early 1970s, see Kenneth L. Adelman, “The Church-State Conflict in Zaire 1969–1974,” African Studies Review , 18 (1975): 102–116. The battle over youth formation was especially important. In Bayart’s words, “it was inevitable that the State should attempt to absorb religious personalities who are suspected of having Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 L E A D E R S H I P I N P O S T C O L O N I A L A F R I C A 25 the ability to control the youth, and to instill them with an alterna- tive model of society” (Bayart, The State in Africa , 188; Carney, this volume). 10 . Engulu quoted in Oyatambwe, Eglise catholique , 43. 11 . A google search of “Gambia student massacres” throws up many accounts of this tragic incident.
Asante, C., 1996. The Press in Ghana: Problems and Prospects . New York: University Press of America. Bolman, L. G., and Terrence E. Deal, 2003. Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership (Third Edition). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Brown, D. J., Kristin Scott, and Hayden Lewis, 2004. “Information Processing and Leadership” in Antoniakis, Cianciolo, and Sternberg (Eds.), The Nature of Leadership . London, UK: Sage Publications. Burns, J. M., 1978. Leadership . New York, NY: Harper. Dekutsey, W., 2012. Kwame Nkrumah: The Great African . Accra, Ghana: Woeli Publishing. Jallow, B. G., 2011. “Guinea: From Democratic Dictatorship to Undemocratic Elections, 1958–2008” in Saine et al. (Eds.), Elections and Democratization in West Africa, 1990–2009 . Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
Nkrumah, K., 1961. I Speak of Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology . New York: Praeger. ———, 1963. Africa Must Unite. New York: Praeger. Nugent, P., 2009–2010. “Nkrumah and Rawlings: Political Lives in Parallel?,” Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana , 12: 35–56. Omari, T. P., 2009. Kwame Nkrumah: The Anatomy of an African Dictatorship . Accra: Sankofa. Saunders, C., 2014. “Leadership and Liberation: Southern African Reflections” in Jallow (Ed.), Leadership in Colonial Africa . New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Schein, E. H., 2010.
Edition). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 Abacha, Sani, 15 academic leaders, 250, 251ff academic leadership, 237–67 academic leadership, challenges facing, 260, 261 academic leadership, legal framework of, 248 Accra Peace Talks, 203 Accra riots, 8 Acheampong, Kutu, 15, 83 activist leadership, 127 actor dispensability, 144 African Capacity Building Foundation, 243 African National Congress, 22, 143–67
African Prize for Leadership for Sustainable End of Hunger, 195 African Union, 27 African Women’s Coalition, 23, 211–35 Africa’s World War, 98 Afrikaner, 21, 22 Alexander, Neville, 152 Alliance for Democracy, 39 Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire, 104 Amin, Idi, 14, 15 Amnesty International, 79 Anglo-Boer War, 21, 144 Apartheid, 21, 27, 29, 33, 34, 143–67 Arusha Declaration, 30 Association for Constitutional Democracy, 171 Association of African Universities, 243
Atlantic Charter, 4 authenticity, philosophies of, 3, 11, 20 authoritarian tendencies, 3 Bachelet, Michelle, 189 Banda, Hastings Kamuzu, 3, 18, 19, 27–44 Banda, Joyce Hilda, 23, 124, 189–210 Barre, Siad, 15 Barry, Alpha Oumar, 50 Barry, Ibrahim (aka Barry Trois), 52 Bass, Barnard, 1 Beavogui, Lansana, 51 Bennis, Warren, 1, 10 Bhuto, Benazir, 189 Black Consciousness Movement, 149, 153 Boigny, Felix Houphouet, 53, 76 Bokassa, Jean Bedel, 14, 15, 20 Brooks, Angie, 175 Burns, James Macgregor, 1, 2, 192, 215
Busia, Kofi, 80 Buthelezi, Chief Mangosothu, 22 Cabral, Amilcar, 46, 55 Caetano, Marcello, 37 Index Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115
I N D E X 276
Cardinal Martino Pan-African Institute for the Social Teaching of the Church, 110 Caritas International, 109 Castro, Fidel, 46 Catholic Church, 11, 20, 97–122 Catholic leadership, 99–122 Catholic leadership, ambiguities of, 112 Catholic leadership, Djomo’s model of, 107 Catholic press, 108 Catholic principle of subsidiarity, 111
Catholic Relief Services, 109 Catholic university, 108 Central Intelligence Agency, 57 Chaskalson, Arthur, 151 Chipembere, Henry Masauko, 28 Chirac, Jacques, 39 Chisiza, Dunduzu, 28 Chissano, Joachim, 196 Chiume, Kanyama, 28 Chiwanga, David, 33 Christ, Jesus, 102 citizen rights and obligations, doctrine of, 5 Clinton, Hillary Rodham, 189 Commonwealth, 13 conceptual complexity, 156 Condé, Alpha, 52
constructive dissent, 4 Conté, Lansana, 51 contingency theory, 30, 41 Convention People’s Party, 4 Cooper, Saths, 149 crisis management, 63 critical servant leadership, 125, 132 Cultural Revolution, 11 da Souza, Jaime, 36 Danquah, Dr. J. B., 8, 9 de Gaulle, Charles, 19, 47, 56 De Sousa, General Baltazar, 36, 37 DeShield, McKinley, 72 D’Estaing, Valéry Giscard, 57 Diallo, Alhassana, 50 Diallo, Telli, 49, 50, 51 Djomo, Bishop Nicholas, 20, 24, 97–122 Dlamini-Zuma, Nkosazana, 190 Doe, Samuel Canyon, 169, 170, 176 Doe-Sheriff, Geraldine, 183, 184 Dramé, Alioune, 50 ecofeminist movement, 128 emotional self-control, 148 empathy, 151ff Eyadema, Gnassingbe, 15 Fahnbulleh, Henry, 75 Federation of French West Africa, 50 FRELIMO, 31, 37 Front de libération nationale de Guinée, 53 Gadama, Aaron, 33 Gardner, John, 1 Gayflor, Vabah, 204 Gbowee, Leymah, 180 Gender Equity in Politics Act, 183, 184 General Workers Union of Black Africa, 50 Ghadhafi, Muamar, 15 Ghanaianism, philosophy of, 10 Governance Reform Commission, 198 Gowon, Yakubu, 6 Great Man Theory, 90 Greenbelt Movement, 21, 124ff Greenleaf, Robert, 133, 213, 214 Grunitzky, Nicolas, 55 Hagendorans, Joseph, 106, 107 Hermean space, 174 higher or tertiary institutions, administration of, 238 Hofstede, Geert, 170, 177 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115
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Holy Trinity, 98, 105 Humanistic Capitalism, 78 Inkhata Freedom Party, 22, 144 institutional autonomy, 259 Institutional Integrity Committees, 197
International Centre for Women’s Research, Peace and Security, 180 International Colloquium on Women’s Empowerment, 180 International Imperialism, Terror of, 20 International Peace Institute, 170 Iweala, Ngozi, 189 Jammeh, Yahya, 12, 13, 15 Jardim, Jorge, 36, 37 Johnson Sirleaf, Ellen, 22, 23 Kabila, Laurent, 104 Kai-Shek, Chiang, 38 Karman, Tawakkol, 180 Kataliko, Archbishop Emmanuel, 104 Kathrada, Ahmed, 150 Kaunda, Kenneth, 54 Keita, Mamadi, 49 Kellerman, Barbara, 1 Kennedy, Edward M., 40 Kennedy, John F., 56 Kenyatta, Jomo, 125 Kimbanguist Church, 106 Ki-Moon, Ban, 198 King Leopold, 100, 105 Kouyate, Laminé, 50 Krebs, Dr. Siegfried, 54 leadership philosophy for integration, 227 Lenin, Vladimir, 48 Liberian Baptist Convention, 74 Liberian Women’s Initiative, 175 Limann, Hilla, 80, 81 Lincoln, Abraham, 144 Lumumba, Patrice, 10, 11, 100, 101 Lutheran Community Services Northwest, 222ff Maathai, Wangari, 1, 21, 123–41 Macmillan, Harold, 34 Maharaj, Mac, 149, 150, 156 Malawi Congress Party, 30, 31 Malawi Young Pioneers, 32 Malula, Cardinal Joseph, 101ff Mambe, Mgr. Paul, 107 Mandela, Nelson, 1, 21, 22, 143–67 Mandela, Winnie, 150 Mano River Women’s Network for Peace, 175 Mapanje, Jack, 32 Marx, Karl, 48 Matanzima, Chief Kaiser, 150 Matenje, Dick, 33 Mbeki, Govan, 159 Mbeki, Thabo, 3, 146 medicinal plant, metaphor of, 23, 211–35
Merkel, Angela, 189 Mhango, Mkwapatira, 32 Mitchell, Andrew, 196 Mitterand, François, 57 Mo Ibrahim Index of Governance, 200
Mobutuism, 11 Monsengwo, Archbishop Laurent, 98, 104
Mugabe, Robert, 1, 3 Munzarihiwa, Mgr. Christophe, 104
Mutharika, Bingu wa, 195, 197 Mutharika, Peter, 195, 197 Nandi-Ndaitwah, Netumbo, 189 Napoleon I, 14 Natal Indian Congress, 159 National Anti-Corruption Day, 197 National Association of Business Women, 196 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 I N D E X 278
National Council of Women of Kenya, 21, 124, 129, 130 National Front for the Liberation of Angola, 34 National Integrity Committee, 197 National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, 34 Ncube, Pius, 110 neopatrimonialism, 192 Nkrumah, Kwame, 1, 3, 4, 6ff, 45, 47, 48, 54, 56, 57, 77, 82ff, 190
N’Nan, Moh, 212 Nobel Peace Prize, 123, 134, 180, 185, 198
Nsawam Prison, 8 Nujoma, Sam, 3 Nyasaland African Congress, 28, 31 Nyerere, Julius, 36, 56 Organization of African Unity, 34 organizational culture of universities, 248 Oscar Romero, 110 Parti Democratique de Guinée, 51
Penitential Sisters of Opbraekel, 106 people-centric leadership, 200 political exceptionalism, 2 Pope Benedict XVI, 109 Pope John Paul II, 103 Poverty Reduction Strategy, 176 power distance, 22, 169–87 Presidential Initiative on Poverty and Hunger Reduction, 196 Preventive Detention Act, 7, 20 prophetic resilient leadership, 131 Provisional National Defence Council, 86ff radical transformative leadership, 130, 134, 135 Rassemblement Democratique Africain, 53 Rawlings, Jerry, 7, 20, 61–95 Reagan, Ronald, 56, 57 reconciliation-oriented leadership, 143–67
reform, a theory of, 62 regime political capacity, 64, 65, 67, 81 Revolution, Supreme Guide of the, 20 Revolutionary Committee of Mozambique, 37 Revolutionary Sciences, Doctor of, 20 Rice Riots, 77 Rivonia Trial, 21, 144 Roberts Construction Company, 35 Roussef, Dilma, 189 Roye, E. J., 71 Rwanda genocide, 104 Samba-Panza, Catherine, 124, 189 Sangala, Twaibu, 33 self-efficacy, sense of, 153 servant leadership, 1, 213 Sese Seko, Mobutu, 3, 10, 11, 13, 17, 50, 97–122 Shamir, Boas, 1 Sharpeville, 144 Sherman, Charles B., 74 Sirleaf, Charles, 173, 199 Sirleaf, Ellen Johnson, 124, 169–87, 189–210 Sirleaf, Fombah, 173, 199 Sirleaf, Robert, 173 Sirleaf Market Women’s Fund, 178, 179 Sisulu, Walter, 149, 155 Slovo, Joe, 147 small man syndrome, 15 South African Communist Party, 147
Southern African Development Community, 196 Sovereign National Congress, 103 Stalin, Joseph, 48 Sun City Accords, 98 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115
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Tambo, Oliver, 146, 149 Taylor, Charles, 169, 170, 171, 176, 198 tempered radicalism, 125 theoretical exceptionalism, 1 Tolbert, Wokie Rose, 74 Tolbert Jr., William, 20, 57, 61–95, 170, 173
Total Involvement, 77 Toure, Almamy Samoury, 46 Toure, Sekou, 3, 19, 45–59, 190 transactional leadership, 1 transformational leadership, 1 transforming-servant-leadership, 3, 23, 211–35 transforming-servant-leadership, a school principal’s application of, 218ff
transforming-servant-leadership, characteristics of, 216, 217 transforming-servant-leadership among African women, 220ff transforming-servant-leadership as indicator of integration, 229ff True Whig Party, 72, 78, 170 Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 157 Tubman, William, 56, 71, 72, 74, 170 Ubuntu, 125, 135 United Democratic Front, 39 United Gold Coast Convention, 8 United Nations, 27, 38, 50, 104 United Nations General Assembly, 175 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 4 Venn, Henry, 111 Vorster, John, 35 Walo, Sr. Rebecca, 108 Weah, George, 171 Women in Peacebuilding Network, 175 Women’s leadership development, 136 Women’s Mass Action for Peace Movement, 175 Young Catholic Workers, 101 Yungu, Mgr. Albert, 107 Yutar, Percy, 144 Zedong, Mao, 38, 48 Zuma, Jacob, 1, 3 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 Copyrighted material – 9781137478115 Document Outline
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