Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
50
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
common problem in managed jaguars. Tooth scaling and polishing should
be a routine part of any
physical examination. Additionally, fractured teeth (most commonly canines) can be a serious problem in
jaguars. Teeth should be carefully examined for fractures; dental films provide additional diagnostic
capabilities. Root canals should be performed when deemed appropriate.
Clinical pathology is an important component of the pre-shipment, quarantine, and routine
examinations. Laboratory tests that should be performed include complete blood count (CBC), chemistry
profile, fecal parasite examination, enteric pathogen screen, serology for calicivirus, canine distemper
virus,
Dirofilaria immitis, feline immunodeficiency virus, feline infectious peritonitis, feline leukemia virus,
feline panleukopenia, herpesvirus,
Leptospira interrogans spp.,
Toxoplasma gondii, and
thyroid
screening. Thoracic and abdominal radiographs should be taken routinely with special attention to the
musculoskeletal condition and internal organs. Ultrasonography may also provide information, especially
for heart, abdominal, and reproductive assessments. In male jaguars, semen evaluation is also important.
For a description of semen evaluation, see section 8.1.
Animals that are taken off zoo/aquarium grounds for any
purpose have the potential to be exposed to infectious agents that
could spread to the rest of the institution’s healthy population.
AZA-accredited institutions must have adequate
protocols in
place to avoid this (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.5). Jaguars
that are transported outside of the institution for testing that
cannot be conducted at the home institution are recommended to
undergo a quarantine period upon their return.
Vaccinations should be updated as appropriate, and if the
vaccination history is not known, the animal should be treated as
immunologically naive and given the appropriate series of
vaccinations. A tuberculin testing and surveillance program must
be established for paid and unpaid animal care staff, as
appropriate, to protect the health of both staff and animals (AZA
Accreditation Standard 11.1.3).
Depending on the disease and history of the animals, testing
protocols for animals may vary from an initial quarantine test, to annual repetitions of diagnostic tests as
determined by the veterinarian. To prevent specific disease transmission, vaccinations should be updated
as appropriate for the species.
Vaccinations: Vaccinations have been the mainstay of preventive medicine programs for both domestic
and non-domestic cats. However, in recent years vaccine-induced neoplasia (Morrison
et al., 2001) has
become a concern in domestic cats and may be a concern in non-domestic felids (Larsen
et al., 1998). To
minimize tumorigenesis associated with vaccination of cats, it is best to allow all vaccines to acclimate to
room temperature before administration. Additionally, there is species variation in immunologic response
to vaccines, and thus vaccines may afford protection in one species but not another. The author knows of
no experimental studies on the efficacy of vaccines in jaguars. Killed or recombinant vaccines should
always be used in jaguars because modified live virus vaccines may cause vaccine-induced disease.
Vaccination schedules for non-domestic felids are based on recommendations for domestic cats. For
neonatal jaguars a routine vaccination series may begin under veterinary supervision at between four and
six weeks of age. The number of veterinary staff and associated sensory cues (smells, sounds, etc.)
should be minimized. Boosters will be given every four weeks through a series of three injections.
Domestic cats that received colostrum as neonates should be vaccinated
every three to four weeks
between 6 and 16 weeks of age. Colostrum-deprived neonates should be given two vaccinations
administered on a three to four week interval starting at two weeks of age because maternal antibodies
acquired in utero should be absent by four to six weeks of age (Davis-Wurzler, 2006). Adults that were
never vaccinated when young should be vaccinated twice, three to four weeks apart. Yearly vaccine
boosters may be advisable in non-domestic species for which data on antibody persistence post-
vaccination are lacking. However, the risk versus benefit ratio between exposure to infectious agents and
the possible development of vaccine-induced neoplasia should be taken in to consideration when
developing long-term vaccination policies for managed jaguars. In domestic cats, the recommended
interval between vaccinations of core vaccines is one year following the initial vaccination series and then
no more frequently than every three years (Richards
et al., 2006).
AZA Accreditation Standard
(1.5.5) For animals used in offsite
programs and for educational purposes,
the institution must have
adequate
protocols in place to protect the rest of the
animals at the institution from exposure to
infectious agents.
AZA Accreditation Standard
(11.1.3) A tuberculin (TB)
testing/surveillance program must be
established for appropriate paid and
unpaid staff in order to assure the health
of both the paid and unpaid staff and the
animals.
Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
51
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
In domestic cats, core vaccines include FPV, FHV-1, FCV, and rabies virus (Richards
et al., 2006),
which is similar for managed jaguars. The use of other vaccines should
be based on specific risk
categories. There are many brands of vaccines for use in felid species (Richards
et al., 2006). Clinicians
should only use killed or recombinant products and should be familiar with the vaccines they administer.
Any adverse reactions should be reported to the AZA Jaguar SSP veterinary advisor so that this
information can be disseminated to other institutions that house jaguars. Panleukopenia (feline
distemper), rhinotracheitis, and calicivirus are the most common viral infectious diseases of domestic
cats. All
ex situ jaguars should be vaccinated against these three viral diseases using the killed vaccine
(e.g., Fel-O-Vax
®
, Fort Dodge Lab Inc.).
Rabies is a highly fatal member of the rhabdovirus family requiring direct contact for transmission. All
warm blooded animals are susceptible to clinical rabies disease. In the Americas rabies is endemic in
many regions. All managed jaguars should be vaccinated against rabies using the killed vaccine (e.g.,
Imrab
®
, Merial Ltd). This (or any) rabies vaccine is NOT licensed for non-domestic felids. However, the
compendium of animal rabies prevention and control states “Zoos or research institutions may establish
vaccination programs which attempt to protect valuable animals, but these should not replace appropriate
public health activities that protect humans” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011).
Canine distemper virus (CDV) has been reported in all families of terrestrial carnivores. Since 1991,
CDV infections have been reported in five species of free-ranging and
ex situ felids from at least eight
discontiguous sites, and epidemics in
managed lions, tigers, leopards, and jaguars have been reported in
the 1990s as reviewed in Deem
et al., 2000. Although the AZA Felid Taxon Advisory Group does not
recommend vaccinating managed non-domestic felids at this time, the canarypox-vectored CDV vaccine
(e.g., PUREVAX
®
, Merial) has proven safe and effective in many nondomestic species. Additionally, there
is a newly available Recombitek
®
CDV vaccine. However, the need exists for studies that may result in a
better understanding of the safety and efficacy of any of the CDV vaccines in nondomestic felid species.
Some zoos are currently using this vaccine in jaguars and other non-domestic felids in the face of CDV
epidemics.
Leptospirosis, caused
by a variety of Leptospira interrogans serotypes, is a potential problem in all
mammals. There are many reports of significant morbidity and mortality in zoo collections. However, the
disease does not appear to be a major problem in felid species. A killed vaccine (e.g., Leptoferm C-I
®
,
Smith Kline Beecham) is available and has been used in some
ex situ situations during leptospirosis
epidemics. Unfortunately, limitations to this vaccine are the lack of cross protection for one serotype when
vaccinated with a different serotype and the short lived (two to three months) immunity post-vaccination.
Feline leukemia virus is a major pathogen in domestic cats (associated with neoplastic and non-
neoplastic disease) throughout the world. However, infection and resulting disease is rare in non-
domestic felids. There is a killed vaccine (e.g., Leukocell
®
, Pfizer Animal Health) available for use in
domestic cats but it is NOT recommended for use in non-domestic felids at this time.
Feline immunodeficiency virus is an often fatal and serious disease of domestic cats. However there
is no clear correlation between virus infection and disease in non-domestic felids. A killed vaccine (e.g.,
Fel-O-Vax
®
FIV, Fort Dodge Lab Inc.) is available for use in domestic cats but is NOT recommended for
use in non- domestic felids at this time.
Feline infectious peritonitis is a coronavirus that causes severe disease
in both domestic and non-
domestic cats. There is a commercial modified live virus vaccine (Felocell FIP, Pfizer Animal Health)
marketed for domestic cats. Presently, this vaccine is NOT recommended for use in non-domestic felids
due to questions about its safety and efficacy.
Vaccines should be used in conjunction with other preventive measures including limiting contact that
managed jaguars have with free roaming wildlife and feral carnivores (domestic cats and dogs), good
hygienic standards, and maintaining adequate nutrition and overall health of jaguars to ensure strong
immune systems. Vaccination for protection against panleukopenia, rhinotracheitis, calicivirus, and rabies
viruses should be routinely given to jaguars housed at AZA institutions. A dose of 1 mL (standard
domestic cat dose) should be used in jaguars of all ages. Currently, the AZA Felid TAG does NOT
recommend the routine use of canine distemper, feline leukemia, or feline immunodeficiency virus
vaccines in jaguars and other non-domestic felids.