Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
52
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
7.5 Capture, Restraint, and Immobilization
The need for capturing, restraining and/or immobilizing an
animal for normal or emergency husbandry procedures may be
required. All capture equipment must be in good working order
and available to authorized and trained animal care staff at all
times (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.3.1).
The AZA Jaguar SSP recommends that member institutions
develop and implement protocols to train staff members for safe capture and restraint of jaguars. Capture
and restraint may be performed through a combination of training and chemical immobilization. Training
jaguars to voluntarily enter into a squeeze cage can minimize the need for using blow pipes or dart guns
to chemically immobilize the animal.
Chemical immobilization is necessary when performing more invasive veterinary procedures on a
jaguar. Jaguars should be fasted for at least 24 hours prior to anesthesia and water should be withheld
for at least 12 hours prior to anesthesia. Similar to other felids, anesthesia of jaguars is usually uneventful
if proper drugs and techniques are used. However, the clinician should always be prepared for handling
emergency situations (Kreeger & Arnemo, 2012; West
et al., 2007) as these can and do arise. There are
a number of anesthetic protocols that have been successfully used for free-ranging
and managed
jaguars. A review of these protocols can be found in Deem & Karesh (2005) and West
et al. (2007).
Clinicians should be familiar with the drugs they choose to use and understand the risk and benefits
associated with different anesthetic options. Telazol
®
can be used (4–8 mg/kg i.m.). A supplemental
anesthesia can be ketamine at a dose of 1–1.5 mg/kg i.v. or 1–2 mg/kg i.m., as needed to maintain an
adequate level of anesthesia. Although there has been debate as to whether Telazol
®
is a problem for
tigers (Armstrong, 1990), there are no reports of adverse reactions to Telazol
®
in jaguars (Kreeger and
Armstrong, 2010). Regardless, adverse reactions with any anesthetic protocols should be reported to the
AZA Jaguar SSP veterinary advisor if they do occur.
Ketamine (4 mg/kg) and xylazine (2 mg/kg) i.m. have also been used in conjunction. Supplemental
anesthesia should be ketamine at a dose of 1–1.5 mg/kg i.v. or 1–2 mg/kg i.m., as needed to maintain an
adequate level of anesthesia. Yohimbine (0.125 mg/kg) should be delivered following anesthesia to
reverse the effects of the xylazine.
Ketamine (2.5–4 mg/kg) and Medetomidine (50–70 mg/kg) i.m. is another combination that can be
utilized. A supplemental anesthesia should be ketamine at a dose of 1–1.5 mg/kg i.v. or 1–2 mg/kg i.m.,
as needed to maintain an adequate level of anesthesia. Atipamezole (5 x medetomidine dose) i.m. should
be delivered following anesthesia to reverse the effects of the medetomidine.
For any of these protocols, atropine (0.04 mg/kg) or glycopyrrolate (0.01–0.02 mg/kg) can be
administered as a single dose either subcutaneously or intramuscularly if the cat has excessive salivation.
Anesthesia is best maintained under zoo management (and increasingly so in the wild if longer term
anesthesia is necessary) by providing isoflurane or sevoflurane via endotracheal tube. Maintenance
levels usually are 0.5–3% but may need to be adjusted based on careful monitoring of the plane of
anesthesia.
7.6 Management of Diseases, Disorders, Injuries and/or Isolation
AZA-accredited institutions should have an extensive veterinary program that manages animal
diseases, disorders, or injuries and has the ability to isolate these animals in
a hospital setting for
treatment if necessary. The owner of an animal on loan at a
facility is to be consulted prior to any elective invasive
procedures, including permanent contraception.
Jaguar care staff should be trained in meeting the animal’s
dietary, husbandry, and enrichment needs, as well as in restraint
techniques. Staff should also be trained to assess animal welfare
and recognize behavioral indicators animals may display if their
health becomes compromised, however, animal care staff should
not diagnose illnesses nor prescribe treatment (AZA Accreditation
Standard 2.1.3). Protocols should be established for reporting
these observations to the veterinary department. Hospital facilities
for jaguars must have radiographic equipment or access to
AZA Accreditation Standard
(2.3.1) Capture
equipment must be in
good working order and available to
authorized, trained personnel at all times.
A
ZA Accreditation Standard
(2.1.3) Paid and unpaid animal care staff
should be trained to assess welfare and
recognize abnormal behavior and clinical
signs of illness and have knowledge of
the diets, husbandry (including
enrichment items and strategies), and
restraint procedures required for the
animals under their care. However,
animal care staff (paid and unpaid) must
not diagnose illnesses nor prescribe
treatment.
Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
53
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
radiographic services (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.3.2), contain
appropriate equipment and supplies on hand for treatment of
diseases, disorders or injuries, and have
staff available that are
trained to address health issues, manage short and long term
medical treatments and control for zoonotic disease transmission.
Non-domestic felids may hide signs of illness until a disease
is advanced. In managed settings, it is important that animal care staff be astute to subtle changes in
behavior or physiologic signs that may suggest illness. Keepers that have daily contact with jaguars are
often the best persons for noting these subtle changes. Any change in appetite, urination, defecation, or
general behavior should be documented. For example, changes in urine and fecal color, quantity, and
consistency should be noted. Dehydration can be assessed by a visual examination that shows a jaguar
with dry mucous membranes and a dry hair coat. Other visual observations that can
be obtained from
outside the enclosure include evaluation for normal breathing patterns and rate (normal breathing rate is
8–24 bpm). Other physiologic parameters like temperature (normal temperature is 37–39.50 °C [98.6–
103.10 °F]) and pulse (normal pulse is 70–140 bpm) require handling the animal. Jaguar keepers noticing
signs of illness should follow the protocol set forth by their institution for proper reporting of health
concerns.
Non-infectious diseases: There are a number of diseases documented in the literature that occur in
managed jaguars. A retrospective study on the morbidity and mortality of jaguars in AZA zoos from 1982–
2002 (Hope & Deem, 2006) provides a good review of these diseases. Non-infectious diseases include a
high incidence of neoplasia which may be species related but also associated with husbandry under zoo
management and/or longevity. Dental issues including calculi and tooth fractures are also commonly seen
in managed jaguars. Laceration, with or without subsequent abscess formation, can also be a problem in
managed jaguars. Kidney and musculoskeletal diseases occur in jaguars, as in other large cat species,
especially as they age.
Jaguars appear to be uniquely predisposed to develop gynecological cancers. A high prevalence of
ovarian, endometrial, and mammary gland cancers have been identified in managed jaguars through the
AZA Contraceptive Advisory Group Contraceptive Health Surveillance program. Although other felids also
develop mammary gland cancer and endometrial cancer, the risk is considerably higher in jaguars. Also,
jaguars are the only felid to date to have documented ovarian cancer, and it affects more than 50% of the
aged population. This combination of ovarian, uterine, and mammary cancers is linked
to a genetic
mutation in humans, which is of concern for the AZA Jaguar SSP. Therefore, a study supported by the
SSP is being conducted to better understand the role that BRCA gene mutations may have in the high
prevalence of reproductive tract related neoplasias in jaguars. For these studies, the SSP requests frozen
tissues from both affected and unaffected jaguars and complete (intact) formalin-fixed reproductive
tracts from all jaguars that are ovariohysterectomized (spayed) or that die (see appendices for forms).
Frozen tissues for genetic analyses should include small samples of any tumor, the heart, the spleen,
and skeletal muscle.
Infectious diseases: Many infectious agents have been documented to cause morbidity and/or mortality
in jaguars including protozoan (Cirillo
et al., 1990), bacterial (Abdulla
et al., 1982) and viral pathogens
(i.e., canine distemper virus, feline infectious peritonitis) (Appel
et al., 1994; Fransen, 1973). It is also
assumed that jaguars are susceptible to the common respiratory disease agents of domestic and non-
domestic cats. Additionally, there is serologic evidence of infection with canine distemper and feline
immunodeficiency virus (Appel
et al., 1994; Barr
et al., 1989; Brown
et al., 1993; Deem, 2001). Since
there is insufficient data on the epidemiology and pathogenicity of FIV in jaguars, it is important to
test all
managed jaguars for FIV-specific antibodies, and, if possible, all
sero-positive animals should be housed separately from
uninfected animals.
AZA-accredited institutions must have a clear process for
identifying and addressing jaguar animal welfare concerns within
the institution (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.8) and should
have an established Institutional Animal Welfare Committee. This
process should identify the protocols needed for animal care staff
members to communicate animal welfare questions or concerns
AZA Accreditation Standard
(2.3.2) Institution facilities must have
radiographic equipment or have access to
radiographic services.
AZA Accreditation Standard
(1.5.8) The
institution must develop and
implement a clear and transparent
process for identifying, communicating,
and addressing animal welfare concerns
from paid or unpaid staff within the
institution in a timely manner, and without
retribution.