Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
58
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
scores of times daily, during a two- or three-day period before she no longer accepts his advances at all
(S. Johnson, personal communication, 2015).
The following describes a successful introduction at one AZA institution. Prior to
initial introduction,
the male and female jaguars were housed next to each other for a few days without visual contact. They
could, however, hear and smell one another. The jaguars alternated days on exhibit before they were
introduced. This permitted each cat to be aware and investigate the presence of another jaguar nearby
through olfactory recognition of marked spots and other deposits in the exhibit. The introduction was not
conducted until the female was in estrus. She vocalized, neck-rubbed on various parts of the exhibit,
frequently rolled on her back and displayed lordosis posture at this time. Four people were stationed
around the outside of the exhibit with CO
2
fire extinguishers and water hoses in case the animals needed
to be separated. Each was instructed to allow aggressive or defensive physical contact lasting up to 30
seconds before attempting to separate the cats. It was also recommended that aggression initiated by the
female be allowed as long as no serious injuries occurred. The female was released into the exhibit first.
When she found a resting spot after her normal patrol of the exhibit, the male was introduced. No
aggression was shown by either cat, although the female dominated the encounter by baring teeth and
swatting with forepaws when the male attempted to approach from her rear.
The jaguars were
monitored
continuously throughout their first day together on exhibit. Fire extinguishers were kept in easily
accessible locations for the first week thereafter. The animals continued to be housed separately when off
exhibit. During the first week, keepers noted in daily reports that the male was receiving numerous
superficial bite and scratch marks, although the female had none. Copulation was first observed thirteen
days after introduction. The female displayed estrus behavior lasting eight to nine days, beginning every
four weeks. The first indication of possible pregnancy occurred when normally obvious estrus behavior
failed to occur in the fourth month after they had been together. As this jaguar’s cycle had previously
been very regular, a second skipped estrus behavior period led us to conclude that she was pregnant
(Flores, Pavlik, & Volk, personal communication, 2003).
8.2 Assisted Reproductive Technology
Scientific interest in developing assisted reproductive technology for jaguars exists but, to date, no
published information documents its successful implementation. The relative
success of natural breeding
by the SSP, combined with logistical obstacles to scientific development of an artificial insemination
protocol for jaguars, has precluded its urgent prioritization (S. Johnson, personal communication, 2016).
The practical use of artificial insemination (AI) with animals was developed during the early 1900s to
replicate desirable livestock characteristics to more progeny. Over the last decade or so, AZA-accredited
zoos and aquariums have begun using AI processes more often with many of the animals residing in their
care. AZA Studbooks are designed to help manage animal populations by providing detailed genetic and
demographic analyses to promote genetic diversity with breeding pair decisions within and between our
institutions. While these decisions are based upon sound biological reasoning, the efforts needed to
ensure that transports and introductions are done properly to facilitate breeding between the animals are
often
quite complex, exhaustive, and expensive, and conception is not guaranteed.
AI has become an increasingly popular technology that is being used to meet the needs identified in
the AZA Studbooks without having to re-locate animals. Males are trained to voluntarily produce semen
samples and females are being trained for voluntary insemination and pregnancy monitoring procedures
such as blood and urine hormone measurements and ultrasound evaluations. Techniques used to
preserve and freeze semen have been achieved with a variety, but not all, species and should be
investigated further.
Besides physical issues, AI procedures also bring issues of ownership of semen and/or the animal
being inseminated. Very often, semen from multiple animals may be used. As with any natural (physical)
breeding, the rights of the owners of all materials and animals involved must be considered. Appropriate
transaction documents (and loan agreements, if appropriate) must be fully completed before AI is
attempted.
If natural mating is not an option because of behavioral incompatibility or location, assisted breeding
techniques can be used to achieve recommended breeding. However, artificial insemination has not yet
been achieved in jaguars, and additional research is required. For non-domestic carnivores, generally,
the process requires semen collection (and possibly freezing) and administering the female with
exogenous hormones to induce ovulation. Finally, females should be anesthetized for laparoscopic
Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
59
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
insemination (Howard
et al., 1992). If genetic material is required from individuals that cannot be
imported, embryos can be produced
in situ, cryopreserved, imported, and implanted into generic females
in the target country/population. Artificial insemination is routinely used as a
meta-population tool in many
species.
Generally, artificial insemination would be employed to inseminate females with sperm from
recommended males that are aggressive, or are at a different facility (either nationally or internationally).
Assisted reproduction technology has been a topic of interest to several researchers in recent years,
although a successful artificial insemination protocol has not yet been developed for jaguars. Embryo
transfer has been successful in several cat species (Donoghue
et al., 1990), but not jaguars as yet. The
availability of AZA Jaguar SSP animals to participate in a study will be very important in undertaking the
necessary research and trials.
8.3 Pregnancy and Parturition
It is extremely important to understand the physiological and behavioral changes that occur
throughout an animal’s pregnancy.
Gestation period is generally 93-105 days, and litter size is one to four cubs. Confirmation of
pregnancy can be obtained by ultrasound (requiring anesthesia) or fecal and urine levels of progesterone
by radioimmunoassay or enzyme-immunoassay. Appendix L contains the protocol for labeling and
sending fecal samples for fecal steroid analysis. The physical appearance of a pregnant jaguar may not
visibly change until very near parturition, if it changes at all. As jaguars are a heavy-bodied cat normally,
weight gain may simply not be apparent. Behaviorally, the most reliable indicator of pregnancy is the
absence of a monthly estrus cycle. This, too, can be deceptive because the jaguar only skips two cycles
prior to giving birth. For nutritional recommendations during pregnancy, refer to Chapter 6.
Like most carnivores, jaguars are secretive normally, and this tendency is often
intensified in late-
term pregnancy. Pacing, stereotypic behaviors, agitation, and attempts to hide or avoid interaction with
keepers have been observed. Likewise, it is possible that a pregnant jaguar may become aggressive or,
at the other end of the spectrum, appear to stare through people and animals unresponsively. These
indicators of stress are not exclusively related to pregnancy, however.
Without endangering staff, the mother, or cubs, little can be done directly to intervene when difficulties
in parturition or rearing occur. In
such cases, the choice is usually binary: allow the mother to do her best
unaided, or pull the cubs for hand-rearing. Thus, the best method of dealing with problems is to minimize
stressors and to condition the animal(s) to accept their caretakers’ presence and interaction.
The dam should be conditioned to accept isolation and an altered feeding regimen at least two weeks
prior to the earliest due date. In order to establish a consistent routine, only one keeper should be
assigned to care for the jaguars beginning no less than one week prior to the earliest due date.
Alternatively, two
keepers can be assigned, providing alternate coverage to allow for days off or other
absence. Only in emergencies should anyone else enter the jaguar night house after this time. During the
week before parturition, and for at least the first week after, foot and vehicle traffic around the den
building should be monitored and severely limited. Starting 10–14 days before the earliest due date, the
birthing facilities should be prepared. It is recommended that animal care staff should
have on hand a den
box and video surveillance equipment and should be cognizant to minimize sights, sounds, and
disturbances (Volk, Pavlik & Flores, 2003). For more information on birthing facilities, see Section 8.4.
8.4 Birthing Facilities
As parturition approaches, animal care staff should ensure that the mother is comfortable in the area
where the birth will take place, and that this area is “baby-proofed.” A recommended timeline for
management and veterinary protocols for jaguar cubs can be found below in Table 15.
The dam should be conditioned to accept isolation and an altered feeding regimen at least two weeks
prior to the earliest due date. Starting 10 to 14 days before the earliest due date, enclose dam’s bedroom
caging with plywood, from floor to about one foot from the ceiling. The space is to allow ventilation and
light. Complete this enclosure in stages over a period of at least one week. To establish a consistent
routine, assign only one keeper to care for jaguars beginning no less than one week prior to earliest due
date. Another recommended option would assign two keepers, providing alternate coverage to allow for
days off or other absence. Only in emergencies should anyone else enter the jaguar night house after this
time. Introduce bedding (e.g., hay or shavings) to allow the dam to hide cubs if she is nervous. However,