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Panthera onca)
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(Schaller & Crawshaw, 1980). The status of the jaguar in the southwestern
United States was
investigated and addressed by David E. Brown of the Arizona Game and Fish Department (Brown, 1983).
This method of research has also been used to map jaguars’ use of their home range and their activity
levels (Mondolfi & Hoogesteijn, 1982). Other studies from the Pantanal in Brazil have been used to help
estimate the efficacy of population and abundance methodologies (Soisalo & Cavalcanti, 2006).
Camera traps: Data collected from camera traps in have been used to estimate the abundance and
density of wild jaguars. This technique was pioneered in 2004 by Silver
et al. and has since seen a
significant rise in popularity (Maffei
et al., 2011). A recent study showed that this less invasive
method
yielded population estimates similar to those made using radio telemetry (Núñez-Pérez, 2011).
Fecal analysis and blood sampling: Analysis of scat in the wild has provided information about jaguar
range, territorial behavior, diet, (Rabinowitz & Nottingham, 1986; Weckel
et al., 2006; Harmsen
et al.,
2010a & 2010b) and hormone levels (Morato
et al., 2004).
Behavioral observations: Jaguars are elusive nocturnal animals and can be very difficult to observe in
the wild. Nonetheless, some behavioral observation has been conducted, mostly under zoo management.
Research has included observations of reproductive behavior, parenting behavior (Stehlik, 1971; Ewer,
1973), and the suitability and efficacy of enrichment (Skibiel
et al., 2007).
Related research: Other research related to jaguars and jaguar conservation has been conducted
relating to threats to jaguar habitat, attitudes of people toward jaguars, and the
possibility of jaguar
reintroduction (Kelly & Silver, 2009).
These research projects, both in the wild and in managed environments, have greatly expanded our
knowledge of jaguar behavior, physiology, and ecology. Understanding these things offers twofold
benefits. First, knowing information about range, diet, reproduction, and behavior allows for more targeted
conservation efforts that address concerns that are specific to the jaguar. Second, understanding jaguar
behavior and ecology in the wild is very important to understanding how to best manage and enrich a
managed animal. Furthermore, a good understanding
of their physiology and ex situ behavior allows for a
safer and healthier experience for both the jaguar and the humans that interact with it.
Positive reinforcement training is important for
ex situ research on jaguars. It can be used for tasks as
simple as reliably shifting animals so that fecal samples can be collected from their enclosure to training
the animal to give voluntary blood samples. Stressed animals yield unreliable and inaccurate data, so any
method of data collection that causes stress taints the results. Positive reinforcement training can make
any behavior needed for data collection enjoyable and even enriching rather than stressful (AZA Jaguar
SSP Management Group and Advisors, personal communication,
2014).
AZA-accredited institutions are required to have a clearly
written research policy that includes a process for the evaluation
of project proposals and identifies the
types of research being
conducted, methods used, staff involved, evaluations of the
projects, animals included, and guidelines for the reporting or
publication of any findings
(AZA Accreditation Standard 5.2).
Institutions must designate a qualified staff member or committee
to oversee and direct its research program (AZA Accreditation
Standard 5.1).
An Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
should be established within the institution if animals are included
in research or instructional programs. The IACUC should be
responsible for reviewing all research protocols and conducting
evaluations of the institution's animal care and use.
If institutions are not able to conduct in-house research investigations, they are strongly encouraged
to provide financial, personnel, logistical, and other support for priority research and conservation
initiatives identified by Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs) or Species Survival Plans
®
(SSP) Programs. Since
its inception in 1996, the AZA Jaguar SSP and its participants have
contributed financial support, time,
and biomaterials to numerous studies. These have been initiated, or endorsed, by AZA Scientific Advisory
AZA Accreditation Standard
(5.1) Scientific studies must be under the
direction of a paid or unpaid staff member
or committee qualified to make informed
decisions.
AZA Accreditation Standard
(5.2) The institution must follow a formal
written policy that includes a process for
the evaluation
and approval of scientific
project proposals, and outlines the type of
studies it conducts, methods, staff (paid
and unpaid) involvement, evaluations,
animals that may be involved, and
guidelines for publication of findings.
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Groups and have also been research launched by institutions that participate in the AZA Jaguar SSP.
Communicating the need for institutional participation in these projects continues to be a priority for this
SSP, and this communication is done via the AZA Jaguar SSP email listserv and direct personal contact.
The AZA Jaguar SSP has a process for endorsing research proposals and actively encourages
institutions to support those projects. Appendix N outlines the SSP’s submission
and review process
(AZA Jaguar SSP Management Group and Advisors, personal communication, 2014).
11.2 Future Research Needs
This Animal Care Manual is a dynamic document that will need to be updated as new information is
acquired. Knowledge gaps have been identified throughout the Manual and are included in this section to
promote future research investigations. Knowledge gained from these areas will maximize AZA-
accredited institutions’ capacity for excellence in animal care and welfare as well as enhance
conservation initiatives for the species.
Field investigation into all facets of jaguar ecology remains a high priority. Though it likely has the
best likelihood for long-term survival of all
Panthera species, large gaps exist in our understanding of
jaguar ecology and natural history (Rabinowitz, 2014). One result is that jaguars in zoos may be managed
as generic big cats because specific needs or variables are simply unknown.
Two core areas identified by the SSP for future research on zoo-managed jaguars include
reproductive pathology, particularly cancer (Chapter 7.6), and assisted reproductive technology (Chapter
8.3).
Research into the motivators of chronic stress is a third high-priority area for jaguars. Factors in the
ambient environment such as sensitivity to light and spectrum (Chapter 1.2), sound and vibration
(Chapter 1.4) have not been quantified. Likewise, study of the variables affecting social interaction
(Chapter 5) and behavior management (Chapter 9) would be of significant benefit, with particular
emphasis placed on understanding and mitigating the underlying causes of chronic stress, as opposed to
masking or eliminating the animals’ responses to it.
Additional opportunities for scientific investigation include nutritional evaluation and
the effect of body
weight on long-term health (Chapter 6.3), and the efficacy and potential side effects of commercially-
available vaccines (Chapter 7.4).