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universal equivalent for all the others. But since this applies to every owner, there is, in fact, no
commodity acting as universal equivalent, and the relative value of commodities possesses no
general form under which they can be equated as values and have the magnitude of their values
compared. So far, therefore, they do not confront each other as commodities, but only as products
or use-values. In their difficulties our commodity owners think like Faust: “Im Anfang war die
Tat.” [“In the beginning was the deed.” – Goethe, Faust.] They therefore acted and transacted
before they thought. Instinctively they conform to the laws imposed by the nature of
commodities. They cannot bring their commodities into relation as values, and therefore as
commodities, except by comparing them with some one other commodity as the universal
equivalent. That we saw from the analysis of a commodity. But a particular commodity cannot
become the universal equivalent except by a social act. The social action therefore of all other
commodities, sets apart the particular commodity in which they all represent their values.
Thereby the bodily form of this commodity becomes the form of the socially recognised universal
equivalent. To be the universal equivalent, becomes, by this social process, the specific function
of the commodity thus excluded by the rest. Thus it becomes – money. “Illi unum consilium
habent et virtutem et potestatem suam bestiae tradunt. Et ne quis possit emere aut vendere, nisi
qui habet characterem aut nomen bestiae aut numerum nominis ejus.” [“These have one mind,
and shall give their power and strength unto the beast.” Revelations, 17:13; “And that no man
might buy or sell, save he that had the mark, or the name of the beast, or the number of his
name.” Revelations, 13:17.] (Apocalypse.)
Money is a crystal formed of necessity in the course of the exchanges, whereby different products
of labour are practically equated to one another and thus by practice converted into commodities.
The historical progress and extension of exchanges develops the contrast, latent in commodities,
between use-value and value. The necessity for giving an external expression to this contrast for
the purposes of commercial intercourse, urges on the establishment of an independent form of
value, and finds no rest until it is once for all satisfied by the differentiation of commodities into
commodities and money. At the same rate, then, as the conversion of products into commodities
is being accomplished, so also is the conversion of one special commodity into money.
4
The direct barter of products attains the elementary form of the relative expression of value in one
respect, but not in another. That form is x Commodity A = y Commodity B. The form of direct
barter is x use-value A = y use-value B.
5
The articles A and B in this case are not as yet
commodities, but become so only by the act of barter. The first step made by an object of utility
towards acquiring exchange-value is when it forms a non-use-value for its owner, and that
happens when it forms a superfluous portion of some article required for his immediate wants.
Objects in themselves are external to man, and consequently alienable by him. In order that this
alienation may be reciprocal, it is only necessary for men, by a tacit understanding, to treat each
other as private owners of those alienable objects, and by implication as independent individuals.
But such a state of reciprocal independence has no existence in a primitive society based on
property in common, whether such a society takes the form of a patriarchal family, an ancient
Indian community, or a Peruvian Inca State. The exchange of commodities, therefore, first begins
on the boundaries of such communities, at their points of contact with other similar communities,
or with members of the latter. So soon, however, as products once become commodities in the
external relations of a community, they also, by reaction, become so in its internal intercourse.
The proportions in which they are exchangeable are at first quite a matter of chance. What makes
them exchangeable is the mutual desire of their owners to alienate them. Meantime the need for
foreign objects of utility gradually establishes itself. The constant repetition of exchange makes it
a normal social act. In the course of time, therefore, some portion at least of the products of
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labour must be produced with a special view to exchange. From that moment the distinction
becomes firmly established between the utility of an object for the purposes of consumption, and
its utility for the purposes of exchange. Its use-value becomes distinguished from its exchange-
value. On the other hand, the quantitative proportion in which the articles are exchangeable,
becomes dependent on their production itself. Custom stamps them as values with definite
magnitudes.
In the direct barter of products, each commodity is directly a means of exchange to its owner, and
to all other persons an equivalent, but that only in so far as it has use-value for them. At this
stage, therefore, the articles exchanged do not acquire a value-form independent of their own use-
value, or of the individual needs of the exchangers. The necessity for a value-form grows with the
increasing number and variety of the commodities exchanged. The problem and the means of
solution arise simultaneously. Commodity-owners never equate their own commodities to those
of others, and exchange them on a large scale, without different kinds of commodities belonging
to different owners being exchangeable for, and equated as values to, one and the same special
article. Such last-mentioned article, by becoming the equivalent of various other commodities,
acquires at once, though within narrow limits, the character of a general social equivalent. This
character comes and goes with the momentary social acts that called it into life. In turns and
transiently it attaches itself first to this and then to that commodity. But with the development of
exchange it fixes itself firmly and exclusively to particular sorts of commodities, and becomes
crystallised by assuming the money-form. The particular kind of commodity to which it sticks is
at first a matter of accident. Nevertheless there are two circumstances whose influence is decisive.
The money-form attaches itself either to the most important articles of exchange from outside,
and these in fact are primitive and natural forms in which the exchange-value of home products
finds expression; or else it attaches itself to the object of utility that forms, like cattle, the chief
portion of indigenous alienable wealth. Nomad races are the first to develop the money-form,
because all their worldly goods consist of moveable objects and are therefore directly alienable;
and because their mode of life, by continually bringing them into contact with foreign
communities, solicits the exchange of products. Man has often made man himself, under the form
of slaves, serve as the primitive material of money, but has never used land for that purpose. Such
an idea could only spring up in a bourgeois society already well developed. It dates from the last
third of the 17th century, and the first attempt to put it in practice on a national scale was made a
century afterwards, during the French bourgeois revolution.
In proportion as exchange bursts its local bonds, and the value of commodities more and more
expands into an embodiment of human labour in the abstract, in the same proportion the character
of money attaches itself to commodities that are by Nature fitted to perform the social function of
a universal equivalent. Those commodities are the precious metals.
The truth of the proposition that, “although gold and silver are not by Nature money, money is by
Nature gold and silver,”
6
is shown by the fitness of the physical properties of these metals for the
functions of money.
7
Up to this point, however, we are acquainted only with one function of
money, namely, to serve as the form of manifestation of the value of commodities, or as the
material in which the magnitudes of their values are socially expressed. An adequate form of
manifestation of value, a fit embodiment of abstract, undifferentiated, and therefore equal human
labour, that material alone can be whose every sample exhibits the same uniform qualities. On the
other hand, since the difference between the magnitudes of value is purely quantitative, the
money commodity must be susceptible of merely quantitative differences, must therefore be
divisible at will, and equally capable of being reunited. Gold and silver possess these properties
by Nature.