Character for Leadership: The Role of Personal Characteristics

Character for Leadership 
67 
 
the function of visionary leadership. However, what are the costs to leaders (and 
their organizations) if self-directedness is low? Such questions should be 
considered by future research to better understand the role that self-directedness 
and the other character traits play in effective leadership function. 
Cooperativeness. 
Results from this study reveal that one’s level of 
cooperativeness is significant to visionary leadership behaviors. Interestingly, this 
trait was not included when the exploratory multiple regression analysis was 
conducted. Nonetheless, this trait is still significant to leadership function.
Organizational psychologists have long agreed that leadership requires the 
use of power. Yet, there are some leaders who use power for their own purposes 
while others use it to accomplish collective goals. This orientation has been termed 
the power motive
(McClelland, 1974, 1975). It has been demonstrated to 
significantly impact leadership abilities and effectiveness (McClelland & Boyatzis, 
1982). The character trait of cooperativeness corresponds with this concept of 
power motivation since both pertain to treating others fairly and not behaving in an 
opportunistic manner. In addition, empathy and compassion, two additional 
subtraits of cooperativeness, are components of some models of emotional 
intelligence (Goleman, 1995) which itself has been shown significant to efforts of 
effective leaders (Sosik & Megerian, 1999). 
The question regarding character is how to identify leaders with character 
that leads to the appropriate use of power. Personal versus prosocial power has 
been tied to pseudotransformational practices (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999), practices 
by which the leader’s actions look like they are transformational in nature but the 
leader’s motivation is not authentic. In the end, such leaders are immoral because 
their leadership is egotistical and benefits the leader personally rather than 
benefiting others or the organization. This study has identified the significance of 
leaders high in the character trait cooperativeness as displaying greater evidence of 
visionary leadership behaviors. Cooperativeness then becomes a key factor in 
determining true transformational leadership. Future studies should consider how 
better to measure the cooperativeness trait in leaders and determine if it is 
significant in determining the power motive of the leader. Research using the VLT 

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Character for Leadership 
68 
 
subscale regarding cooperative leadership should also consider how to better 
identify the power motive of leaders so their personal motivation can be addressed 
in a development context. 
Self-transcendence. 
Results from this study pertaining to the character trait 
self-transcendence reveal several unexpected findings. First, no support was found 
for the hypothesis expecting a difference in visionary leadership behaviors based on 
one’s level of self-transcendence. Second, no support was found for the hypothesis 
expecting a difference in mature character based on one’s level of self-
transcendence. That neither hypothesis was supported does not signify a lack of 
effect. Interestingly, this trait was a significant part of the multiple regression 
analysis examining variance in visionary leadership behaviors. 
Perhaps this trait is significantly different for the particular sample in this 
study. Though a difference was expected as a result of the literature on the topic, 
perhaps the reduced effect is due to differences in this particular population. One 
could speculate that there may be different cultural perspectives on self-
transcendence and whether such a trait is typical and acceptable for those preparing 
for ministry at this particular institution of theological education. This does raise 
the following question: would responses be different at a different institution? The 
differences associated with particular levels of self-transcendence and visionary 
leadership behaviors should be explored further to determine if this effect is 
reproducible in other populations. 
Self-transcendence overlaps conceptually with the concept of spirituality. 
Some studies have considered the relationship between spirituality and self-
transcendence (MacDonald & Holland, 2002). Future research should continue to 
explore the relationship. Spirituality has enjoyed significant interest within the 
study of leadership in recent history, especially doctoral dissertations (Field, 2003; 
Hartsfield, 2003; Jacobsen, 1994; Zwart, 2000). Some of these studies have 
demonstrated significant relationships between spirituality and leadership function. 
Noting the relationship between spirituality and leadership, Rima (2000) stated the 
following:

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Character for Leadership 
69 
 
In light of the reality that leadership is, at its most essential level, a spiritual 
activity, I would strongly contend that in the final analysis every leadership 
failure is, at its root, a spiritual issue. Regardless of whether the failure 
takes the shape of sexual immorality, unethical business practices, criminal 
activity, or any other impropriety that could lead to a leadership failure, at 
the core of all these failures is the leader’s inability to recognize, diagnose, 
and address spiritual disease of one sort or another in his life. (p. 129) 
Additionally, future explorations should consider the interaction of the trait 
of self-transcendence with the other character traits self-directedness and 
cooperativeness. Though not significant in this study, future studies should 
consider how the traits develop and if there is progression in their development 
(i.e., if one is fundamental to the development of the others). Such developmental 
awareness can assist in the design of character development initiatives. 
Future explorations are also appropriate to determine in what way highly 
self-transcendent leaders may be different from those who are not. Such 
consideration is important for leaders in general. However, given the apparent links 
to spirituality, such consideration is essential for those exercising religious 
leadership. 
Leadership for Religious Contexts 
It was a fundamental premise of this study that much can be learned by 
institutions of theological education through an investigation of truth gleaned 
through rigorous evaluation, even if not from an investigation of biblical texts. 
While it is important that truth be in fundamental agreement with a biblical 
worldview, all truth does not come directly from Scripture. Rather, “all truth is 
God’s truth” (Gaebelein, 1954, p. 20). Much truth exists that has been gleaned from 
secular analysis of the study of character and leadership that can improve the 
process by which leaders are trained for Christian ministry (Malphurs, 2003). 
From the standpoint of a social cognitive framework (Fiske & Taylor, 
1991), if enacting leadership behaviors is based on specific leadership self-
structures or schemas (Murphy, 2002), it highlights the importance of clarification 
of leadership schemas for Christian ministry. Students cannot enact appropriate 

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Character for Leadership 
70 
 
leadership behaviors if they do not know what behaviors are appropriate for 
Christian leaders. Leader self-regulation can only occur based on the leadership 
schemas held by each individual. Therefore, desired outcomes must take shape 
through the evaluation of appropriate standards. This implies that seminary 
curricula, if attempting to influence the development of appropriate leadership for 
Christian ministry, must provide discussion and training to insure that graduates 
embark with appropriate leadership schemas from which they can then enact 
appropriate leadership behavior. At the very least, seminaries must clarify or 
operationalize what is meant by the term 
Christian leader
. 
The developmental perspective has important implications for leader 
selection and person–organizational fit (i.e., the admissions process). 
If a pattern of how leaders develop can be determined reliably, the 
constructive/developmental framework may have implications for selecting 
and developing leaders. It may be possible to select individuals for