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horizontal band of decoration that runs along the walls. The barrel vaulted
ceiling was simply covered by a layer of whitewash and left undecorated.
Cave 118 is architecturally similar to Cave 116, the main painting is on
the main wall; horizontal bands of decoration run along the side and front
walls. Most of the paintings are concentrated in the upper section of the
cave, which includes both lunettes and the ceiling, a very peculiar and
unique layout. Cave 117 was completely painted, including antechamber
and main chamber. Both chambers have three layers of paintings, each
following different themes, the last one covered by thick layer of soot,
which makes the reading of the décor very problematic.
We turn now to the two caves painted in Style B – Caves 110 and
114 – which were fully painted. The paintings of Central pillar Cave 114
are typical for this type of cave: on the apex of the ceiling is a median strip
and diamond grids on the two haunches, along the sidewalls are panels
with preaching scenes, and themes connected with the nirvana in the rear
areas; the chief exception is the painted Bodhisattva in the large niche of
the main wall (the background for a now lost statue). Cave 110 the layout
of the painting of consists of three superimposed rows of square panels on
Figure 13. Median strip of Cave 114 (top) and Cave 118 (bottom). Notice the straight line
of the diamond grid pattern in both caves, unseen in other caves of Qizil. (Source: Zhongguo
shiku
1996, pls. 128 and 150)
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the main and side walls; the largest representations were painted on the
lunettes above the main and front walls; the ceiling was decorated with a
median strip and diamond grids on the two haunches.
The situation of District Six, compared with that of other districts of
Qizil, is uncharacteristic. Usually Style B paintings in Qizil are found in
central pillar caves which are the ritual centre of a group. In this regard
cave 114 can be considered a typical case, while Cave 110 is not. Square
caves painted in Style A are typically perfectly square in plan with a domed
ceiling, forming groups with monastic cells. The three caves painted in
Style A do not present these traits and each of the three caves presents a
narrative and layout that are unique cases in Kuča. A further complication
is the presence of unusual features in both Caves 114, painted in Style B,
and 118, painted in Style A. In both instances the median strip is enclosed
by wavy lines, while in most caves the median strip is much indented, since
it is formed of the space left by the diamond grids on the two haunches of
the ceiling (Fig. 13).
Moreover, another uncommon element in the median strip of Caves
114 and 118 is a strainer (?) carried by one of the flying monks (or is he
a Buddha?). These are the only two instances in Kuča in which this imple-
ment is depicted. In summary, Cave 114 and 118 differ in architecture,
content of the décor and painting style, but share common elements in the
layout and content of the of the median strip.
Although iconographic studies will continue to be carried out by special-
ists, this paper aims to stress the interesting elements emerge when we
compare varied components or aspects of painted caves from the same
district. The results of such comparisons can lead to a better understand-
ing of the caves, their purpose and function.
3 Interpretation
3.1 Function of the Caves
The rock monasteries of Kuča present a variety of cave types, not always
properly labelled. These misnomers in turn jeopardize the correct inter-
pretation of the cave function. Moreover, caves of the same type may not
necessarily have fulfilled the same function. The research methods for
studying the caves from a functional perspective are still in a pioneer
phase, careful attention needs to be paid to several elements, such as the
relative position of a cave in the site and its relation to its neighbouring
caves. These factors are highly likely to shed new light on the way a cave
was used (Vignato 2010, p. 132). In District Six important information
about original function of the cave can also be garnered from the analysis
of another over looked factor, the soot. In Qizil, a significant number of
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caves are covered with soot; the surface of some caves is darkened to such
an extent that the paintings are almost unidentifiable. A thorough survey
of the site reveals the presence of different kinds of soot: thick and dry
soot produced by the burning of combustible material in the fireplace is
usually found in monastic cells; oily and sticky soot produced by devotional
lamps is found in decorated caves; and finally thin dry soot resulting from
occasional fires belongs to a post-monastic period.
In District Six, some caves are covered with soot; I leave aside the
monastic cells which are covered with the thick dry soot described above
and consider the painted caves. Walls and ceiling of the main chamber of
Cave 117 are covered with thick strata of oily soot which almost entirely
obscures the paintings. As previously mentioned, Cave 117 presents three
layers of painting. A closer scrutiny reveals that the soot covers only the
top layer of the paintings, but there is no soot in the lower ones. The ante-
chamber has no traces of soot. These observations suggest that the prac-
tice of burning a devotional lamp in the main chamber, possibly in front
of the statue set on the altar only occurred in the late monastic period,
after the final repainting.
Cave 114, the only central pillar cave in District Six, is a beautifully
decorated cave whose paintings are blackened by heavy soot which is par-
ticularly thick on the ceiling. The fact that the soot layer in this cave is not
as thick here as in Cave 117 does not necessarily implies a shorter period
of usage, but may be due to other factors, such as the larger size of this
cave, or the air flow caused by the corridors which could have dispersed
the soot. In this case the devotional lamp was likely placed in front of the
statue in the main niche, used for a prolonged period of time. Notice that
Caves 117 and 114 were the only two caves with statuary in District Six.
These are the only painted caves in District Six that retain traces of soot.
Cave 110 and 118, and to a lesser extent the poorly preserved Cave 116,
display vivid colours with no trace of soot. The fact that devotional lamps
were lit painted caves with statues, while in others this practice was not
followed, suggests that different rituals took place in the caves.
Other meaningful data can be inferred from the fact that Cave 119[2] – a
lecture hall resulting from the merging of two earlier smaller caves – was
frequently restored. Up to five successive layers of plaster were applied to
its walls, each one covered by numerous coats of whitewash, as if the cave
underwent regular maintenance. This suggests a prolonged usage which
required frequent upkeep. This type of maintenance was not undertaken
in the other caves, the lack of décor negates the possibility that it was
required in order to fulfil this cave’s specific function.
The data emerging from fieldwork and the study of elements present in
the caves – intentional or unintentional – do not offer a final assessment
of the development of the district and the use of its caves. They suggest,
however, that the development here was not a linear and straightforward
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process. In terms of this process, here are a few concrete facts. Firstly,
the group comprising central pillar Cave 114 and monastic cell Cave 115
was expanded by adding a second monastic cell and a few meditation
cells, reached by means of through an appositely carved inner stairway.
Secondly, Cave 117 was painted and repainted three times. This repaint-
ing was not just a restoration of the existing images, but actually saw the
introduction of new themes. Thirdly, the lecture hall Cave 119[2] was a late
addition to the district that called for the merging of two smaller caves.
Cave 119 was transformed into a lecture hall because at the time, this new
cave type was deemed essential to the day-to-day function of the district.
From this it can be ascertained that there was more than one factor which
influenced the construction of the monastery. These clearly went through
different phases over time.
Caves 114, 117 and 119 all shows signs of continuous use and/or res-
toration and were therefore significant to the function of the district. In
Cave 114 which was the ritual centre of a group, expanded over time, a
lamp appears to have burned continuously in front of the Buddha image.
Cave 117 was certainly an important cultic cave, changes to the content
of the paintings were likely due to doctrinal changes. Following the final
renovation of the paintings a lamp set on the altar in front of the main
statue set on top of a central altar. Finally Cave 119 was an unpainted
cave intensively used and saw regular upkeep. It is clear that these three
caves were the lynch-pins of ritual and communal activity in District Six.
3.2 Monastic Cells: Who Lived in Them?
Since most of the published photographic material and the research fo-
cuses on the decorated caves, there is a common misperception within
the scholastic community as to the component factors of the rock monas-
teries of Kuča. Few of the art historians who study the caves of Kuča are
willing to accept that there were more monastic cells than central pillar
caves in Qizil. This is not a matter of conjecture, but of straightforward
calculation. In approaching the analysis of the site without consideration
for any of the undecorated caves such as monastic cells, meditation cells
and deposit caves, several preposterous theories have been suggested
concerning the nature of the site. For instance, it has been suggested that
the art was designed for the enjoyment of noble patrons and the populace.
This overlooks the monks and the fact that there were a considerable
number of them living in the rock monasteries of Kuča. The percentage of
monastic cells in District Six is quite low, with only three monastic cells
of the typical Kuchean type (Caves 112, 115 and 121), while Cave 111,
an exceptional type seen only once in Kuča, might be a special form of
monastic cave. The number of monks cannot be clearly ascertained, but it
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can be safely assumed that the resident monastic population of this district
was not very large.
Although, as mentioned above, Cave 121 was a typical Qizil monastic
cell, it may have had a special function, since it overlooked the only en-
trance to the district. It formed a small group with meditation cell Cave
121. Caves 112 and 115 were two monastic cells in a same group. Cave
115 formed the original group together with Caves 114. A likely increase
of the monastic population can be the reason of the expansion of the main
chamber of Cave 115, and of the subsequent construction of Cave 112
at an upper level. It is interesting to note that groups comprising caves
carved at different levels in Qizil are rare; the only other known instance
is the group formed by square Cave 12, central pillar Cave 13, monastic
cell Cave 24 and meditation cells Caves 25, 25A, 25B and 25C – as well as
a two other meditation cells west of Cave 12. Both groups, in other words,
had a ritual centre as well as living and meditation places. The interesting
fact is that in the side corridors of both central pillar caves – Caves 13 and
114 – are painted processions of nuns (Fig. 14).
Figure 14. Qizil cave 13, outer wall of the right corridor. The fact that all figures have a long
right sleeve suggests they were nuns. (Photograph: © Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Museum
für Asiatische Kunst/Photograph)
The identification of nuns is based on the fact that they wear a long sleeve
covering their right arm and shoulder, differently from the monks whose
arm and shoulder were bare. Moreover, in both cases the monastic cells
are relatively isolated from the other caves, as if to ensure a higher degree
of privacy. It is possible that a small community of nuns resided in these
two groups. Chinese sources record the fact that noblewomen from the
kingdoms around the Taklamakan were sent to Kuča to receive some Bud-
dhist training (Takakusu, Watanabe 1924-1934, vol. 55, no. 2145); could
they be hosted in these caves? This argument could even be taken further
to suggest that the whole of District Six was occupied by nuns.
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3.3 Meditation Cells and Meditation
If the interpretation of the typology of caves offered in this paper is correct,
then meditation cells most common cave type in District Six. In the west-
ernmost section of this district there was a concentration of meditation
cells of different types, the remaining ones being five individual cells and
a cave for communal meditation. Three larger caves, suitable for overnight
residence were part of this group which was accessed via the stairway
Cave 113, while another small cave for individual meditation is visible in
the upper reaches of the cliff. Cave 119A is a monastic cell consisting of
a narrow chamber with four lateral niches carved on its main and side
walls. Lastly, Cave 120 was a cell suitable for overnight residence carved
in a high position on the cliff, next to cave 121. All four types of medita-
tion cells known in Kuča are found in this district. They include individual
cells carved in isolation or in a row, larger cells for prolonged periods of
meditation, tunnel-shaped caves with cells carved off their side walls,
and tunnel-shaped caves without cells carved along their sides (Howard,
Vignato 2015, pp. 87-97).
From the above it can be seen that more than a score of monks/nuns
could meditate at the same time in the meditation cells of District Six.
Although this number is not impressively large, it is significant for such a
small district, with only three monastic cells. This would indicate that one
of the primary functions of this district was meditation.
3.4 Conclusion
This concise presentation of District Six only serves to provide the brief-
est of insights into the inner workings in District Six, one of the small-
est and most complex districts in Qizil. A full accounting of all relevant
features would likely require several volumes. In addition to a summary
presentation of the caves, this paper serves to highlight a number of often
understudied issues, such as connective architecture, repairs, a few issues
related to caves devoted to worship, and also a preliminary interpretation
of the function of the caves. Since monks (perhaps nuns) lived, worshipped
and meditated in these few caves, District Six can be regarded as a sample
of a typical monastery in Kuča.
Finally, the study and interpretation of rock monasteries cannot depend
solely on elements of iconography and style of the cave wall paintings. Wall
paintings must not be separated from the framework in which they were
created, nor can we ignore their location within the cave, or the general
context in which the cave was carved. In short, these cave wall paintings
are not paintings hanging on the walls, but a strongly contextualized type
of immovable art.
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