United States
Department of
Agriculture
Forest Service
Pacific Northwest
Forest and Range
Experiment Station
Research Paper
PNW-305 March
1983
Avifauna Associated
With Early Growth
Vegetation on
Clearcuts in the
Oregon Coast
Ranges
Michael L Morrison and E. Charles Meslow
This file was created by scanning the printed publication.
Mis-scans identified by the software have been corrected;
however, some errors may remain
Authors
MICHAEL L MORRISON was a graduate
research assistant and E. CHARLES
MESLOW is leader, Oregon Cooperative
Wildlife Research Unit, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
Morrison's present address is Depart-
ment'of Forestry and Resource Manage-
went, 145 Mulford Hall, University of
California, Berkeley, California 94720.
Abstract
Morrison, Michael L; Meslow, E. Charles.
Avifauna associated with early growth
vegetation on clearcuts in the Oregon
Coast Ranges. Res. Pap. PNW-305.
Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station; 1983.12 p.
This paper provides estimates of bird
density, diversity, and evenness on 13
clearcut units of the Siuslaw National
Forest in the Coast Ranges of Oregon,
sampled during 1979,1980, and 1981.
Total density of nesting birds ranged from
322 to 588 per 40.5 hectares (100 acres);
there were 15 to 19 species nesting on
each site.
Keywords: Bird habitat, population distri-
bution, clearcutting, Oregon (Coast
Ranges), Coast Ranges—Oregon.
Introduction
The Oregon Coast Ranges is one of the
most heavily logged regions of North
America (Beuter and others 1976,
Williamson 1973). The usual method of
logging in the Coast Ranges involves
cutting all standing trees—clearcut log-
ging. Commercial species, primarily
Douglas-fir, are removed, and noncom-
mercial hardwoods are usually left lying
on the site (see "Study Sites" for a detailed
description of silvicultural procedures).
1
Timber harvesting in the Oregon Coast
Ranges thus results in a dramatic altera-
tion of habitats used by wildlife.
An increasing demand for timber prod-
ucts, coupled with improved planting
stocks and silvicultural techniques, has
resulted in shorter rotation periods (the
time between successive harvests of a
stand) and a greater proportion of total
area in relatively early stages of success-
sion (Beuter and others 1976). It is thus
essential that an understanding of the
animal communities associated with
these clearcuts be developed. Knowl-
edge must be gained that not only iden-
tifies species characteristic of clearcuts
but also quantifies use of clearcuts by
species usually associated with mature
stands. In this way, forest wildlife
biologists can better predict the effects
that clearcut logging and shorter rotations
will have on wildlife of the region. Few
studies, however, have documented the
animal communities on clearcuts in the
Oregon Coast Ranges.
In this paper we report on the use of
clearcuts by birds. Our specific objectives
were to: (1) describe the avifauna nesting
in early growth vegetation on 13 clearcuts
and (2) quantify the use of clearcuts by
birds not usually associated with clear-
cuts. This analysis will enhance under-
standing of the avian community structure
of clearcuts, serve as a data base for the
formation of hypotheses during future
studies that examine the change in
species composition through various
successional stages and management
practices, and provide insight about the
ability of species inhabiting mature and
old-growth forest to compensate for
habitat alteration by using clearcuts for
various activities.
1
Scientific names for birds and plants are listed
on pages 9 and 10.
Literature Review
It is not our intent to review all literature on
avian communities associated with
clearcuts. Studies dealing with the Pacific
Northwest are mentioned below and
throughout the text. We list other articles
with the hope that this information will aid
others in assembling relevant literature;
literature cited in these papers offers a
further source of material.
There are few major field studies dealing
with clearcut logging and avian com-
munities in the Pacific Northwest. Hagar
(1960) compared the avifauna of several
early growth clearcuts with birds of ma-
ture forests in the Douglas-fir region of
northwestern California and found that
species usually associated with weed
and brush serai stages were favored by
logging; species requiring mature forests
were eliminated when larger trees were
removed. In the Puget Sound region of
western Washington, Manuwal and
Munger found that the brush-dominated
stages after clearcut logging had higher
total density and diversity of birds than
uncut stands had.
2
Here again, species
usually associated with mature forests
were eliminated (as breeding species) by
logging. Mannan (1977) and Mannan and
others (1980) compared the avifauna of
stands that received various silvicultural
treatments (clearcut logging, thinning) in
the Oregon Coast Ranges. Total bird
density on clearcuts was nearly equal to
that in natural Douglas-fir stands 35 to
100 years old but was characterized by
ground- and brush-nesting species.
Hagar (1960), Mannan (1977), Mannan
and others (1980), and Manuwal and
Munger (see footnote 2) concluded that
the severe reduction in snags by clearcut
logging practices greatly reduced the
number of primary cavity nesters (for
example, woodpeckers) and secondary
cavity nesters (bluebirds) on clearcuts.
2
Manuwal, David A.; Munger, Garet. The effect
of timber harvest on bird populations in the
Douglas-fir forests of Washington State.
Unpublished report on file at the University of
Washington, Seattle; 1978.
1
Study Sites
From known distributions and habitat
requirements, Meslow and Wight (1975)
and Wight (1974) listed birds likely to be
found iri different successional stages
west of the Cascade Range. Both articles
discuss the relative use of, and activity
patterns on, various serai stages(include-
ing clearcuts) in western Oregon. Al-
though these papers give a useful and
much needed description of species
occurrences, the information is too gen-
eral to help forest wildlife biologists
quantify the use of clearcuts by birds in
the Oregon Coast Ranges.
The effect of clearcut logging on avian
communities has received more attention
in areas outside the Pacific Northwest.
Some of these studies and their general
geographical locations include: conifer-
ous forests in the Rocky Mountains and
the Southwest—Austin and Perry (1979),
Franzreb (1977,1978), Franzreb and
Ohmart (1978), Ramsden and others
(1979), and Szaro and Balda (1979a,
1979b); coniferous, mixed-conifer, and
hardwood forests in the East and South-
east—Conner and Crawford (1974),
Conner and Adkisson (1975), Conner
and others (1975,1979), Michael and
Thomburgh (1971), Strelke and Dickson
(1980), Titterington and others (1979),
and Webb and others (1977); and aspen
forests of the intermountain west—
DeByle (1981). Articles dealing with the
various biological, sociological, and
economic issues of clearcut logging
include Hooven (1973), Pengelly (1972),
Marks and Bormann (1972), and Resler
(1972). Finally, we suggest that forest
wildlife biologists review Lack (1933) for
one of the first discussions of the relation
between forestry practices and avian
habitat selection.
This study was conducted on 13 clearcuts
in the Douglas-fir region of the Oregon
Coast Ranges on land administered by
the USDA Forest Service, Siuslaw Na-
tional Forest, Alsea and Hebo Ranger
Districts. This region is characterized by
subclimax Douglas-fir and climax western
hemlock and western redcedar; stands
are being converted to near monotypes of
Douglas-fir after logging. A thorough
description of the forest composition,
successional patterns, and various
environmental features of this region is
given by Franklin and Dyrness (1973).
The specific locations and general topog-
raphy of all study sites are given in table 1.
The selection of clearcuts was based on
the following: (1) a minimum size of 20
hectares and (2) clearcuts of early growth
and vegetation considered "typical" by
Forest Service personnel. All sites were
clearcut logged (all commercial and
noncommercial trees were cut). After
logging, sites were prepared for planting
by broadcast burning. Douglas-fir seed-
lings were then hand planted over an
entire site at about 3- by 3-meter spacing.
At the time of the study, sites ranged from
4 to 9 years in postplanting age, and
precommercial thinning had not yet taken
place. Thinning usually takes place 10 to
15 years after planting. During precom-
mercial thinning, deciduous trees and
less vigorous conifers are felled to in-
crease the spacing between the remain-
ing conifers Certain sites received aerial
herbicide treatment 4 to 5 years after
planting to reduce competition for conifer
seedlings from shrubs and deciduous
trees. Sprayed and unsprayed (control)
study sites were also used for an exami-
nation of the effects of herbicide treatment
on avian community structure. Although
herbicides suppressed shrub growth for a
period, plant composition was not mark-
edly different between sprayed and
unsprayed sites (Morrison 1982). These
results represent a sampling of sites and
silvicultural practices likely to be encoun-
tered on clearcuts in the Oregon Coast
Ranges (rather than only sprayed or
unsprayed areas).
For a detailed description of the vegeta-
tion on each site, see Franklin and
Dyrness (1973). All sites were selected
according to obvious structural
similarities, and a general description of
vegetation structure and species com-
position follows.
Vegetation was characterized by a dense
and ubiquitous shrub layer (40 to 75
percent total cover) dominated by sal-
monberry, thimbleberry, vine maple, and
salal. Dominants in the low shrub-herb
layer included swordfern, bracken fern,
tansy ragwort, foxglove, pearly everlast-
ing, Oregon oxalis, and various grasses.
With an average height of less than 2.0
meters, Douglas-fir had not yet assumed
a position of dominance (less than 10
percent cover) on most sites. Red alder
provided the only significant vertical
structure on the sites. Most alder, ranging
up to 8.0 meters in height, were concen-
trated in gullies and areas of soil
disturbance.
2
Table 1—Description of 13 clearcuts in the Coast Ranges of Oregon
1
/ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service site designation; on file at Alsea Ranger Station, Alsea, Oregon.
2
/ At time of each census, the number of years after planting; most seedlings were planted at 2 years of age.
3
Methods
Avian Census Technique
The census technique used was the
variable circular-plot method (Reynolds
and others 1980). Of the 13 study sites,
11 were censused for one season each
during 1979,1980, or 1981; and 2 sites
were censused for all 3 years. Ten census
stations (fixed sampling points) were
established on each site. No station was
closer than 100 meters to the clearcut
edge, nor closer than 100 meters to the
next nearest station. Beginning at sun-
rise, birds were censused at each station
for 8 minutes. Censusing birds at the
10 stations on a site required about
2 hours; only one census was conducted
per day. Birds on each site were cen-
sused once a week during the peak of the
nesting season (May to July) for a total of
five censuses a year for each site. Results
of these censuses were combined to give
an estimate of density for each species
per site per year. Bird species diversity
(Shannon and Weaver 1949) and even-
ness (Pielou 1966) were also calculated
for each site. Birds soaring over and
apparently using a site for foraging (for
example, raptors), and birds observed
before or after a morning census (but not
seen during the census) were not re-
corded, but the time and location of such
birds were noted. The mean number of
observations per 40.5 hectares was used
as the density estimate for these species.
Because study sites were visited only
during daylight, nocturnal species (owls)
are not considered.
Results and Discussion
Nesting Species
Of the 53 species observed on the clear-
cuts, 22 were nesting (table 2); however,
only 11 of these were considered com-
mon or abundant. The nesting bird com-
munity typical of clearcuts in the Oregon
Coast Ranges is dominated by white-
crowned and song sparrows, rufous-
sided towhee; rufous hummingbird;
orange-crowned, MacGillivray's, and
Wilson's warblers; willow flycatcher; and
Swainson's thrush. Dark-eyed junco,
Bewick's wren, American goldfinch,
American robin, wrentit, and black-
headed grosbeak were regular but rela-
tively uncommon nesters. Cavity-nesting
species were extremely rare on all sites.
All the common to abundant nesting
species nest and forage on or near the
ground; typically used substrates include
various shrubs (salmonberry, thimble-
berry, salal), Douglas-fir, and deciduous
trees (especially red alder). Shrubs and
conifer seedlings were widespread over
all sites; they provide ample cover for
species preferring low, shrubby habitat
(sparrows, towhee, hummingbird,
orange-crowned and MacGillivray's
warblers). More local in distribution were
species that included deciduous trees
(red alder, for example) in their habitat.
Density of several species, especially the
Wilson's warbler, Swainson's thrush, and
black-headed grosbeak, appeared to be
related to the density of red alder.
Primary and secondary cavity-nesting
species were extremely rare as breeding
species on all study sites. Seldom did a
site have more than 2 to 10 snags of
adequate size (>20-30 cm in d.b.h. and
>4-6 m in height) to be suitable as nesting
sites for most cavity nesters; see Bull
(1978), Thomas and others (1979), and
Mannan and others (1980). A 30-hectare
clearcut would typically support one
nesting pair of either hairy woodpecker,
western bluebird, or chestnut-backed
chickadee; several sites had no nests of
cavity-nesting species.
The total density of nesting individuals
ranged from 322 to 588 birds per 40.5
hectares (table 3). Species richness
ranged from 15 to 19 species per site,
diversity from 2.27 to 2.60, and evenness
from 0.834 to 0.900. Mannan (1977)
found a similar diversity (2.63) for the
avian community on 10-year-old clear-
cuts in the Oregon Coast Ranges. Non-
nesting birds were not included in overall
density and diversity because of the often
sporadic occurrence and varied activities
of these species.
For all sites, total density of nesting birds
was lower in 1980 compared with 1979
and 1981. Reasons for such variation in
density are obscure but may include
weather conditions, food availability,
observer error, or other factors. Caution
should be used if census data are used to
make comparisons between sites and
years.
4
Table 2—Estimated density, frequency of occurrence, and abundance of avifauna associated with early growth vegetation
in 13 clearcuts in the Oregon Coast Ranges, by activity and species
5
Table 2—Estimated density, frequency of occurrence, and abundance of avifauna associated with early growth vegetation in
13 clearcuts in the Oregon Coast Ranges, by activity and species—{continued)
1/ For species with greater than 50-percent occurrence: R (rare) = 1 to 4 birds/40.5 ha; U (uncommon) = 5 to 15;
C (common) = 16 to 40; A (abundant) = >41. For species wjth less than about 50-percent occurrence:
S (sporadic) = (any density).
.
6
Table 3—Density, diversity, evenness, and species richness of birds nesting on clearcuts of early growth timber in the
Oregon Coast Ranges, by site number
1/
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service site designation; on file at Alsea Ranger Station, Alsea, Oregon.
2/
Pielou (1966).
7
Regularly Observed Species
Many birds regularly encountered on the
sites usually nested in adjacent mature
stands and used clearcuts for various
other activities, especially foraging.
Notable in this category were cavity-
nesting birds, including hairy and downy
woodpeckers, common flicker, yellow-
bellied sapsucker, and chestnut-backed
chickadee. The pileated woodpecker, a
species usually associated with mature
and old-growth forests (Bull and Meslow
1977), was observed foraging on down
logs on several sites. The black-capped
chickadee, which apparently nests in the
lower foothills of the Oregon Coast
Ranges, sporadically visited clearcuts at
higher elevations, especially during the
nonnesting season. Other species,
including the Steller's jay, purple finch,
band-tailed pigeon, cedar waxwing,
olive-sided flycatcher, and evening
grosbeak were also observed foraging
and perching, but not nesting, on
clearcuts.
Several of the species listed as "Perching
(activity unknown)" or "Foraging" in this
study have been observed nesting on
clearcuts in the Oregon Coast Ranges—
Mannan (1977) recorded the infrequent
nesting of the common bushtit, Town-
send's solitaire, and house wren on the
10-year-old sites he studied.
Occasionally Observed Species
Birds in this final category were a minor
component (by density) of clearcuts in the
Oregon Coast Ranges. Included here are
the raptorial species, all of which were
observed actively foraging over the
clearcuts (as opposed to simply flying
directly over an area). The sharp-shinned,
Cooper's, and red-tailed hawks were
seen flying about or perched on the sites
only infrequently. Turkey vultures were
more common visitors to clearcuts than
the hawks, foraging over several sites
each year.
The remaining species in this category
were mostly passerines that usually
nested in surrounding habitats. Included
were the warbling and Hutton's vireos;
winter wren; brown-headed cowbird;
Townsend's solitaire; Brewer's blackbird;
pine siskin; western wood pewee; yellow,
hermit, and black-throated gray warblers;
chipping sparrow; western tanager;
common bushtit; and rough-winged
swallow. Although brown-headed cow-
birds were observed on the clearcuts, the
rate of nest parasitism by this species
was not assessed.
Conclusions and
Management Considerations
Avian communities associated with early
growth clearcuts in the Oregon Coast
Ranges are characterized by species that
apparently prefer a shrub-dominated
habitat (sprarrows, towhee, certain
warblers); such species should be ex-
pected as regular nesters on all clearcuts.
Where deciduous trees are present, such
as in gullies, wet depressions, and along
logging roads, species that utilize the
vertical structure provided by deciduous
trees are found (Wilson's warbler, Swain-
son's thrush, black-headed grosbeak).
Deciduous trees increase both the verti-
cal and horizontal patchiness or hetero-
geneity of vegetation structure on clear-
cuts and allow utilization of the sites by a
greater number of individuals of certain
species compared with sites lacking
deciduous trees.
Several authors have recommended that
a minimum of 5 or 6 snags per hectare are
required to maintain a nesting population
of most primary and secondary cavity
nesters on an area (Balda 1975; Cunning-
ham and others 1980; Scott 1979;
Thomas and others 1979, table 18).
Mannan and others (1980) suggested 11
snags per hectare (>48 cm in d.b.h.,
>4.4 m in height) as an optimum density
of snags, indicating that even 6 snags
may be insufficient to maintain functional
populations of cavity-nesting species in
the forest ecosystem (to maintain their
role in insect predation). It is thus signify-
cant that clearcuts in this study had only
about 0.3 snag per hectare. Similarly,
Cline and others (1980) found a mean
density of 0.5 snag (>9 cm in d.b.h.) per
hectare in 10-year-old clearcuts in the
Oregon Coast Ranges.
8
Birds and Plants
In summary, the following actions could.
increase the numbers and kinds of birds
nesting on clearcuts:
1. Maintain patches of deciduous trees
(for example, red alder, bigleaf maple,
elderberry). Appropriate places for reten-
tion of deciduous trees would be along
logging roads and landings, in wet de-
pressions and areas of unstable soils,
and along permanent and intermittent (all
classes) stream courses, where conifers
are often difficult to establish. Patches
may be relatively small in area (5 to 10 m
by 10 to 20 m; Morrison 1982).
2. Retain snags during logging operations
whenever possible; killing and leaving
large culls instead of felling them may be
necessary. Although the minimum num
ber of snags required was not directly
assessed in this study, literature available
indicates that 6 snags (>20 to 30 cm in
d.b.h., >4-6 m in height) per hectare
should be provided on each clearcut,
11 snags may be more appropriate. Data
presented in Thomas and others (1979)
for eastern Oregon and Washington
provide general guidelines for snag
management on a species-specific basis
that can be followed until similar informa-
tion is available for western Oregon
forests.
3. Leave large (>20-30 cm in d.b.h.),
down material (logs) scattered about
each site to serve as foraging substrate
for woodpeckers and other birds. In
addition, various species of amphibians,
reptiles, and mammals use logs (Maser
and others 1979).
Actions such as these increase the
diversity of habitats available for birds
and will enhance both species richness
and diversity of avian communities on
clearcuts.
Common name
Birds:
3
Turkey vulture
Sharp-shinned hawk
Cooper's hawk
Red-tailed hawk
Mountain quail
Band-tailed pigeon
Common nighthawk
Rufous hummingbird
Yellow-bellied sapsucker
Pileated woodpecker
Northern flicker
Hairy woodpecker
Downy woodpecker
Western wood-pewee
Olive-sided flycatcher
Willow flycatcher
Violet-green swallow
Tree swallow
Northern rough-winged swallow
Steller'sjay
Black-capped chickadee
Chestnut-backed chickadee
Bushtit
Wrentit
Bewick's wren
Winter wren
House wren
Townsend's solitaire
American robin
Swainson's thrush
varied thrush
Western bluebird
Cedar waxwing
Warbling vireo
Hutton'svireo
Orange-crowned warbler
MacGillivray's warbler
Wilson's warbler
Yellow warbler
Black-throated gray warbler
Hermit warbler
Brewer's blackbird
Brown-headed cowbird
Western tanager
Black-headed grosbeak
Evening grosbeak
Purple finch
Pine siskin
American goldfinch
Rufous-sided towhee
Dark-eyed junco
Chipping sparrow
White-crowned sparrow
Song sparrow
3
Authority for birds is American Ornithologists'
Union (1982).
Scientific name
Cathartes aura
Accipiterstriatus
Accipiter cooperii
Buteojamaicensis
Oreortyx pictus
Columba fasciata
Chordeiles minor
Selasphorus rufus
Sphyrapicus varius
Dryocopus pileatus
Colaptes auratus
Picoides villosus
Picoides pubescens
Contopus sordidulus
Contopus borealis
Empidonax traillii
Tachycineta thalassina
Tachycineta bicolor
Stelgidopteryx serripennis
Cyanocitta stelleri
Parus atricapillus
Paws rufescens
Psaltriparus minimus
Chamaea fasciata
Thryomanes bewickii
Troglodytes troglodytes
Troglodytes aedon
Myadestes townsendi
Turdus migratorius
Catharus ustulatus
Ixoreus naevius
Sialia mexicana
Bombycilla cedrorum
Vireo gilvus
Vireo huttoni
Vermivora celata
Oporornis tolmiei
Wilsonia pusilla
Dendroica petechia
Dendroica nigrescens
Dendroica occidentalis
Euphagus cyanocephalus
Molothrus ater
Piranga ludoviciana
Pheucticus melanocephalus
Coccothraustes vespertinus
Carpodacus purpureus
Carduelis pinus
Carduelis tristis
Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Junco hyemalis
Spizella passerina
Zonotrichia leucophrys
Melospiza melodia
9
Common name
Plants:
4
Douglas-fir
Western hemlock
Western red cedar
Salmonberry
Thimbleberry
Vine maple
Salal
Swordfern
Tansy ragwort
Foxglove
Pearly everlasting
Oregon oxalis
Red alder
Aspen
Bigleaf maple
Elderberry
4
Authority for plants is Hitchcock and Cronquist
(1973).
Scientific name
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco
Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg
Thuja plicata Donn
Rubus spectabilis Pursh
Rubus pan/iflorus Nutt
Acercircinatum Pursh
Gaultheria shallon Pursh
Polystichum munitum (Kaulf.) Presl
Senecio jacobaea L.
Digitalis purpurea L
Anaphalis margaritacea (L) B. & H.
Oxalis oregana Nutt. ex T. & G.
Alnus rubra Bong
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Acermacrophyllum Pursh
Sambuscus racemosa L
Acknowledgments
This is a contribution of Oregon Coopera-
tive Wildlife Research Unit: Oregon
Department of Fish and Wildlife, Oregon
State University, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, and the Wildlife Management
Institute. The Oregon Cooperative
Wildlife Research Unit has been involved
with forest wildlife research since the
early 1970's. Much of this research has
been funded by the USDA Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station, La Grande, Oregon
(Range and Wildlife Habitat Research
Project USDA-FS-PNW-1701) through a
series of Cooperative Agreements with
Oregon State University (OSU Supple-
merits No. 214,192,152, and 104). This
paper draws on expertise and data
gathered coincident to the above re-
search efforts. Oregon State University
Agricultural Experiment Station Technical
Paper No. 6196.
English Equivalents of
Metric Units
1 hectare = 2.47 inches
1 meter = 39.37 inches
1 centimeter = 0.39 inch
10
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12
Morrison, Michael L; Meslow, E. Charles. Avifauna associated
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This paper provides estimates of bird density, diversity, and even-
ness on 13 clearcut units of the Siuslaw National Forest in the
Coast Ranges of Oregon, sampled during 1979,1980, and 1981.
Total density of nesting birds ranged from 322 to 588 per
40.5 hectares (100 acres); there were 15 to 19 species nesting on
each site.
Keywords: Bird habitat, population distribution, clearcutting,
Oregon (Coast Ranges), Coast Ranges—Oregon.
The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of multiple
use management of the Nation's forest resources
for sustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife,
and recreation. Through forestry research,
cooperation with the States and private forest
owners, and management of the National Forests
and National Grasslands, it strives — as directed by
Congress — to provide increasingly greater service
to a growing Nation.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture is an Equal
Opportunity Employer. Applicants for all Department
programs will be given equal consideration without
regard to age, race, color, sex, religion, or national
origin.
Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station
809 NE Sixth Avenue
Portland, Oregon 97232
Document Outline - Authors
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Literature Review
- Study Sites
- Results and Discussion
- Avian Census Technique
- Nesting Species
- Conclusions and Management Consideration
- Regularly Observed Species
- Occasionally Observed Species
- Birds and Plants
- Acknowledgments
- English Equivalents of Metric Units
- Scientific name
- Common Name
- Literature Cited
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