21
or slaves.
51
So, both before the Mongol invasion and during 200 years of the
invasion Russia had a passive position in relations with the East. The
influence of the West on the other hand, was not coming from Western
Europe but Byzantine. Despite all these, it may also be argued that the
Mongol invasion transformed Russia and the passive position of Russia in
relation to the East started taking a more active role. Within this context
Frye argues the following:
“
It is commonly believed that the rule of the Golden Horde over Russia, ca.
1240-1480, isolated Russia from West. Actually, in my opinion, it was during
this period that Western Europe really discovered Muscovy, for this is the
time of the movement of Western centers of commerce and industry from
South to North … We must not forget that the Russian cities of Pskov and
Novgorod joined the Hanseatic League; hence Western European merchants
and envoys came to Russia in greater numbers than previously. The
expansion of the Ottoman Turks and their conquest of Constantinople in
1453 made the Russian route to the Orient more attractive than it had been.
There were many Western Europeans, artisans, and others at the court of
Ivan III of Moscow (1453-1505), and the number continued to grow.
Therefore, although the Mongol yoke may be held responsible for many
facets of life in Russia, such as Oriental protocol at the court of the tsars, the
Russians were hardly cut off from the West by the Mongols.
”
52
Similarly, Robert Crumney argues that Mongols paved the way to the
unification of Russians who were divided between the Orthodox Church and
the Great Kniaz.
53
Considering that it was much easier to collect taxes
under one big kniaz rather than several of them, Mongol contribution to
51
Ibid., p. 32. Prof. Dr. Halil nalcık also says that after 1512, ending peaceful
relations between Muscovy and Ottomans, Tatar raids became a continious process
and only between 1606 and 1617, 100.000 slaves were bought from Russia and
sent to Turkey. See nalcık, Halil. "Osmanlı-Rus lişkileri 1492–1700." Türk-Rus
lişkilerinde 500 Yıl 1491–1992. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1999, p. 27.
52
Frye, op. cit., in note 31, p. 32.
53
Robert O Crumney. The Formation of Muscovy, 1304-1613. Longman: London
and New York, 1987, p. 29-30.
22
Russians is important in this respect. Smirnov argues that the Russians
fighting against the Turks, Crimean Tatars and other nomadic societies
accelerated the pace of founding centrally governed states in Hungary,
Austria, Russia and Eastern European states.
54
Donald Ostrowski underlines
the similarities between the 14
th
century Muscovite and Kipchak institutions
and claims that fundamental political and military institutions in both
societies demonstrated parallel attributes.
55
As the Mongols weakened Moscow started to expand into other kniaz.
In this period envoys were sent abroad including India and Iran. In 1466 an
envoy including a merchant from Tver, Afanasii N. Nikitin, went to Shemeka
before Shirvanshah. However, no merchant was able to make use of the
diary of Nikitin, which he wrote about the places he visited. In his diary,
Nikitin had provided travel information on Shemeka, Derbent, Baku, Iran
and India. It can be inferred from texts written by Nikitin that he learnt daily
languages since he made use of Tatar, Persian and Indian terms and
expressions.
56
As a result, in the period between the 9
th
and 15
th
centuries the
relations of Russia with the East and any motives to learn about the East
54
Smirnov, op. cit., in note 28, p. 16.
55
Ostrowski, Donald. "The Mongol Origins of Muscovite Political Institution." Slavic
Review 49, no. 4 (1990): 525-42. Bartold also agrees with this idea. Bartold, op.
cit., in note 4, p. 364.
56
Dantsig, op. cit., in note 34, pp. 20–21., Kim & Shastitko, op. cit., in note 16, pp.
20-22., Bartold, op. cit., in note 4, pp. 365-366.
23
stems from practical concerns. There is a need to know Eastern languages
both to conduct trade and better know the enemy. In this period the people
used for translation purposes were not Russians but Turkic-Tatars. So, since
the very beginning of Russian relations with the East, the Tatars play a
major role. As will be discussed later, the Tatar domination in the fields of
translation and documentation would become a source of discomfort with
the rise of the Muscovite rule and creation of a Russian identity. That is why
the Russian people would start receiving training in the following periods. In
the post-Mongolian period, the Russians inherited the Mongolian way of
administration. Apart from all these discussions, it is apparent that the
Russian experience both before and after the Mongol period is unique.
Hence, if one needs to research where Russian Orientalism diverges from
Western Orientalism, the point of departure should be this initial period
when
Russia
first
came
into
contact
with
the
East.