Literary History of Persia

II. Between A.D. 1600 and 1700 (A.H. 1008-1111).
Four of the seven poets discussed at length by Shiblí in the third volume of his Shi‘ru’l-‘Ajam fall within the period indicated above. These are Naẓírí (d. 1021/1612-13), Ṭálib-i-Ámulí (d. 1036/1626-7), Abú Ṭálib Kalím (d. 1061/1651), and Ṣá’ib (d. 1088/1677-8)⁴⁹⁴. Riḍá-qulí Khán in the enumeration of eminent contemporaries of the Ṣafawí kings with which he concludes the supplementary eighth volume written by him in continuation of Mírkhwánd’s Rawḍatu’ṣ-Ṣafá mentions not one of these, but, in the period now under consideration, names only Ẓuhúrí (d. 1024/1615) and Shifá’í (d. 1037/1627). Another poet ignored by both these writers but highly esteemed in Turkey, where, according to Gibb⁴⁹⁵, “he continued for more than half a century to be the guiding star for the majority of Ottoman poets,” being “deservedly famous for his marvellous ingenuity and fertility in the invention of fresh and picturesque images and similes,” is Shawkat (or Shevket, according to the Turkish pronunciation) of Bukhárá (d. 1107/1695-6). To these seven we may add, besides four or five⁴⁹⁶ who, though
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they wrote occasional verse, were primarily philosophers, and will be discussed in connection with that class, the following six, who were, perhaps, a trifle more distinguished than their innumerable competitors: Saḥábí of Astarábád (d. 1010/1601-2), Zulálí of Khwánsár (d. about 1024/1615), Jalál Asír (d. 1049/1639-40), Qudsí of Mashhad (d. 1056/1646-7), Salím of Ṭihrán (d. 1057/1647-8), and Amání of Mázandarán (d. 1061/1651). Although I think that Rieu⁴⁹⁷ goes too far when he describes Ṣá’ib as “by common consent the creator of a new style of poetry, and the greatest of modern Persian poets,” he is without doubt the greatest of those who flourished in the seventeenth century of our era, and, I think, the only one deserving a detailed notice in this volume, notwithstanding Riḍá-qulí Khán’s remark that “he had a strange style in the poetic art which is not now admired⁴⁹⁸.”

Here follows a list of these seventeen poets, arranged chronologically according to the dates of their deaths, with brief references to the authorities who may be consulted for further particulars concerning them. These are, besides Rieu’s incomparable Persian Catalogue, Shiblí’s Shi‘ru’l-‘Ajam, vol. iii (Sh.), the Átash-kada (A. K.), the Haft Iqlím (H. I., available in manuscript only), the Rawḍátu’l-Jannát (R. I.), the Rawḍatu’ṣ-Ṣafá (R. S.), the Majma‘u’l-Fuṣaḥá (M. F.), and the Riyáḍu’l-‘Árifín (R. ‘Á).

(1) Saḥábí of Astarábád (d. 1010/1601-2). Rieu, p. 672; A. K., pp. 141-2, and H. I., s.v. Astarábád in both; M. F., ii, p. 21; R. ‘Á., pp. 85-6. He spent forty years of his life in tending the holy shrine of Najaf, and composed, besides ghazals, many quatrains, of which 6000 are said to be extant.
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(2) Naẓírí of Níshápúr (d. 1021/1612-3). Rieu, pp. 817-8; Sh. iii, pp. 134-64; A. K., pp. 131-3; H. I., s.v. Níshápúr (a long notice); M. F., ii, pp. 48-9; R. ‘Á., pp. 236-7. The last thirty years of his life were spent in India, chiefly at Aḥmadábád in Gujerát, where he died. He was one of the many poets who benefited by the bounty of ‘Abdu’r-Raḥím Khán-Khánán, who provided him with money to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca in 1002/1593-4, in response to a qaṣída beginning:



Through genius I cannot contain myself, like the Magian wine in the jar;

the very garments are rent on my body when my ideas ferment.

Through thy beneficence I experienced all the pleasure of this world:

what wonder if through thee [also] I should obtain provision for the other world?”

In matters of religion he was something of a fanatic, and wrote verses attacking “the heretic” Abu’l-Faḍl. He also wrote verses in praise of tobacco, some of which are quoted by Shiblí (p. 134).
(3) Zulálí of Khwánsár (d. 1024/1615). Rieu, pp. 677-8; H. I., s.v. Khwánsár (a long notice). He was the panegyrist of Mír Dámád, and composed seven mathnawís, of which that on Maḥmúd and Ayáz (begun in 1001/1592-3, and concluded in 1024/1615), shortly before his death, is the most popular. Two others mentioned by Rieu are “the Wine-Tavern” (May-khána), and “the Mote and the Sun” (Dharra u Khurshíd).
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(4) Ẓuhúrí of Turshíz (d. 1024/1615, murdered in an affray in the Deccan together with his fellow-poet and father-in-law Malik of Qum). Rieu, pp. 678-9; A. K., pp. 68-70; R. S., at end of vol. viii. He is, as Rieu observes, little known in Persia, though much admired in India, especially as a writer of extremely florid prose. The author of the A. K. says that in his opinion this poet’s Sáqí-náma (“Book of the Cupbearer”) has no great beauty, in spite of the fame which it enjoys.
(5) Bahá’u’d-Dín ‘Ámilí, commonly called Shaykh-i-Bahá'í (d. 1030/1620-1), was primarily a theologian, and to some extent a philosopher and mathematician, but he wrote at least two short mathnawí poems, entitled respectively Nán u Ḥalwá (“Bread and Sweetmeats”) and Shír u Shakkar (“Milk and Sugar”). Extracts from both are given in the M. F. (vol. ii, pp. 8-10), besides a few ghazals and quatrains, and also in the R. ‘Á. pp. 45-9. Apart from his mathematical and astronomical treatises, his best-known prose work is the Kashkúl (or “Beggar’s Bowl”), which has been printed at Buláq and lithographed in Persia. This work, though written in Arabic, contains many Persian poetical citations, which, however, are omitted in the Egyptian edition. The famous mujtahid Mullá Muḥammad Taqí-i-Majlisí (d. 1070/1659-1660) was one of the most eminent of his disciples.
(6) Ṭálib-i-Ámulí (d. 1036/1626-7). Rieu, p. 679; Sh. iii, pp. 165-188; A. K., pp. 155-6, where it is said that “he had a peculiar style in verse which is not sought after by eloquent poets.” In India, whither he emigrated in early life, he was so highly appreciated that Jahángír made him his poet-laureate (Maliku’sh-Shu‘ará) in 1028/1619. He was far from modest, for he
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boasts that before he reached his twentieth year he had mastered seven sciences⁴⁹⁹:

“My foot is on the second step of the zenith of the decades, and behold

the number of my accomplishments exceeds the thousands!

In mathematics, logic, astronomy and philosophy I enjoy a proficiency

which is conspicuous⁵⁰⁰ amongst mankind.

When all these are traversed the savoury knowledge of the Truth⁵⁰¹, which is

the Master of the Sciences, is added to the sum total.

In the concatenated description of my writing this is enough, that every dot

from my pen is the heart’s core of men of letters⁵⁰².

I put on the attribute of poetry, for I know that thou knowest that this step is

to me the eighth of these ‘seven severe ones.’⁵⁰³”

In the following quatrain, also cited by Shiblí (p. 168), he alludes to his proposed journey to India and bids himself
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“leave his black (i.e. bad) luck in Persia, because no one would take a Hindú as a present to India”:

He had an elder sister to whom he was deeply attached and after a long separation she came from Persia to Ágra to see him. He thereupon sought leave of absence from the Emperor Jahángír in the following verses⁵⁰⁴:

“O Master, Patron of the humble⁵⁰⁵! I have a representation [to make] in eloquent language.

I have an old and sympathetic sister, who entertains for me a mother’s love.

Fourteen years or more have passed since my eyes were parted from the sight of her face.

I was removed from her service in ‘Iráq, and this sin is a grievous fault of mine.

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She could not bear to remain far from me, for she is as a mother to me.

Lo, she bath come to Ágra, and in longing for her my heart flutters like a pigeon.

My heart craves after her: what can I do? Yearning impels me on the road.

If leave should be granted me to visit her, it would be worth a world to me.”

Of love-poems there are only too many in Persian, but poems such as this, testifying to deep and sincere family affection, are rare enough to make them worthy of record.
(7) Shifá’í (d. 1037/1627). There exists in the British Museum (Or. 1372, f. 7^a) a portrait of this poet, as well as one of his satires, entitled Sízdah-band⁵⁰⁶ (Add. 12560, ff. 134-140): see Rieu, pp. 786 and 822. I cannot find in my manuscript of the Ta’ríkh-i-‘Álam-árá-yi-‘Abbásí, either amongst the poets or the physicians of the court of Sháh ‘Abbás, the notice of him to which Rieu refers, but there is a long account of him in M. F. (Vol. ii, pp. 21-23) and in the R. ‘Á. of the same author (pp. 213-218), as well as in A. K. (pp. 168-9). His proper name was Ḥakím (Doctor) Sharafu’d-Dín Ḥasan, and he was court-physician and boon companion to Sháh ‘Abbás the Great. Riḍá-qulí Khán says that “his medicine eclipsed his scholarship, as his poetry eclipsed his medicine”:

Besides satires and odes he composed a mathnawí poem entitled Namakdán-i-Ḥaqíqat in imitation of Saná’í’s Ḥadíqatu’l-Ḥaqíqat.
(8) Mír Muḥammad Báqir-i-Dámád of Astarábád (d. 1040/1630-1). The title Dámád (“Son-in-law”) really applies to his father, who was the son-in-law of the celebrated mujtahid Shaykh ‘Alí ibn Abdu’l-‘Al al-‘Ámilí. Mír Dámád, who wrote
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[Picture: SHIFÁ’Í, POET AND PHYSICIAN]

1920. 9. 17-0298 [2] (Brit. Mus.)

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verse under the pen-name of Ishráq, was more notable as a theologian and philosopher than as a poet. See Rieu, p. 835; M. F., ii, p. 7; R. ‘Á., pp. 166-7; Á. K., p. 159. There are long notices of him in the Rawḍátu’l-Jannát (pp. 114-116), and in the Ta’ríkh-i-‘Álam-árá-yi-‘Abbásí, written in 1025/1616, while he was still living. He is there described as skilled in most of the sciences, especially philosophy, philology, mathematics, medicine, jurisprudence, exegesis and tradition, and about a dozen of his prose works are mentioned. He was one of the teachers of the great philosopher Mullá Ṣadrá of Shíráz.
(9) Mír Abu’l-Qásim-i-Findariskí (d. about 1050/1640-1) was also more notable as a philosopher than as a- poet, but is mentioned in M. F., vol. ii, pp. 6-7; R. ‘Á., p. 165-6; A. K., pp. 143-4; and Rieu, pp. 815-816. One poem of his, written in imitation of Náṣir-i-Khusraw, is cited in all the tadhkiras, and is therefore, presumably, his best known if not his, best production. It begins:

“The heaven with these fair and pleasant stars should be beautiful;

it hath an aspect beneath, whatever there may be above.

If this lower aspect should ascend by the ladder of knowledge, it

would indeed be at one with its original.

No exoteric understanding can comprehend this speech, though it

be Abú Naṣr [al-Fárábí] or Abú ‘Alí [ibn] Síná (Avicenna).”

Abu’l-Qásim was extraordinarily careless of appearances, dressing like a darwísh, avoiding the society of the rich
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and the respectable, and associating with disreputable vagabonds. One day Sháh ‘Abbás, intending to rebuke him for keeping such low company, said to him, “I hear that certain students cultivate the society of vagabonds and look on at their degrading diversions.” “I move constantly in those circles,” replied Mír Abu’l-Qásim, “but I have never seen any of the students there.” He made a journey to India, and there, according to the Dabistán⁵⁰⁷, came under the influence of certain disciples of Ádhar Kaywán and imbibed Zoroastrian and Hindú or Buddhist ideas which led him to declare that he would never perform the pilgrimage to Mecca, since it would involve his taking the life of an innocent animal. Though his attainments are rated high by Riḍá-qulí Khán, very meagre details are given concerning his life; perhaps because, while more a philosopher than a poet, and more a darwísh than a philosopher, he does not exactly fall into any one of these three classes, and is consequently apt to be omitted from the special biographies of each.
Among the better-known minor poets of this period are Jalál Asír (d. 1049/1639-40), Qudsí (d. 1056/1646-7), Salím of Ṭihrán (d. 1057/1647-8), Abú Ṭálib Kalím and Amání of Mázandarán (both died in 1061/1651), Muḥammad Ṭáhir Waḥíd (d. about 1120/1708-9), and Shawkat of Bukhárá (d. 1107/1695-6). Besides Ṣá’ib (d. 1088/1677-8), the greatest of them all, only the fourth, the sixth and the last of these demand any separate notice.
(10) Abú Ṭálib Kalím (d. 1061/1651) was born at Hamadán, but, until he went to India, lived chiefly at Káshán (whence he is often described as “Káshání”) and Shíráz. Riḍá-qulí Khán (M. F., ii, p. 28) gives a very meagre notice of him, but Shiblí (Shi‘ru’l-‘Ajam, iii, pp. 205-230) discusses him at some length.
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About 1028/1619 he paid a visit to his native country, but after remaining there for about two years, he again returned to India, where he became poet-laureate to Sháh Jahán. He accompanied that monarch to Cashmere and was so charmed with that country that he remained there until his death. He was a man of genial disposition, free from jealousy, and consequently popular with his fellow-poets, of whom Ṣá’ib and Mír Ma‘ṣúm were his special friends, so that Ṣá’ib says:



Except Ṣá’ib, the epigrammatic Ma‘ṣúm, and Kalím,

who of all the poets are kind to one another?”

When the poet Malik of Qum died, Abú Ṭálib composed the following verses giving the date of his death:

“Malik, that king of the realm of ideas, whose name is stamped on the coin⁵⁰⁸ of poetry,

So enlarged the horizons of this realm of ideas that the frontiers of his domains extended

from Qum to the Deccan.

I sought for the date of the year [of his death] from the days: they said ‘He was the chief of

the Masters of Speech’” (ú Sar-i-ahl-i-sukhun búd = 1025/1616)⁵⁰⁹.
Most of the Persian poets who went to India to seek a fortune, or at least a livelihood, had, according to Shiblí⁵¹⁰, nothing but evil to say of the country, but Kalím speaks of it with appreciations⁵¹¹:
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“One can call it the second Paradise, in this sense, that whoever

quits this garden departs with regret.”

On one occasion the Sulṭán of Turkey wrote a letter to the Emperor Sháh Jahán reproaching him with arrogance in calling himself by this title, which means “King of the World,” when he was in reality only king of India. Kalím justified his patron in the following verse:

“Since both Hind (India) and Jahán (world) are numerically identical⁵¹²,

the right of the king to be called ‘King of the World’ [and not

merely ‘King of India’] is demonstrated.”
Shiblí discusses Kalím’s merits very fully, and cites many of his verses to illustrate them. He includes amongst them especially novelty of topics , original conceits , aptness of illustration . In this last

respect, illustrated by the following amongst other verses, Kalím resembles the more famous Ṣá’ib:

“Fate sets an ambuscade against our luck: the thief always pursues the sleeper⁵¹³.”

“The heart imagines that it has hidden the secret of love: the lantern

imagines that it has hidden the candle.”

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“He who has been raised up from the dust by fortune, like the rider

of the hobby-horse, always goes on foot, although he is mounted.”

“My desolate state is not mended by my virtues, just like the ruin,

which does not prosper through its treasure⁵¹⁴.”

“The mean man does not acquire nobility by proximity to the great:

The thread does not become precious through its connection with the pearls.”

“What profits it that I, like the rosary, kissed the hands of all?

After all, no one loosed the knots of my affair.”

“Her converse with me is as the association of the wave and the shore,

Ever with me, yet ever fleeing from me.”

“Where there is power, the hand and heart are not able [to use it]:

The oyster-shell opens its palm when there is no pearl therein.”

(This last verse is very similar to one by Ṣá’ib which runs:

“Flowers and fruit are never found together in one place: it is

impossible that teeth and delicacies should exist simultaneously.”)

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“He who has reached [the goal] shuts his lips on ‘Why?’ and ‘Wherefore?’

When the journey is finished the [camel-]bell becomes tongueless.”

“If thou art satisfied with thy portion, the more or less of the world is the same:

When the thirsty man requires but one draught, the pitcher and the ocean are alike.”

“We are without knowledge of the beginning and end of the world:

the first and last [pages] of this ancient book have fallen out.”

“He who becomes acquainted with the mysteries of the world soon departs:

Whoever does his work brilliantly leaves the school.”

The following ode, cited by Shiblí⁵¹⁵, is typical of Kalím, and with it we may conclude this brief notice:

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“Old age hath come, and the exuberance of the youthful temperament hath departed;

The weakness of the body can no longer support the heavy [wine-] cup.

The way of the world is not worth seeing a second time:

Whoever passes from this dust-heap looks not back.

Through the triumph of thy beauty over the army of Spring

The blood of the roses hath risen a fathom above the top of, the Judas-tree.

Acquire such a disposition that thou canst get on with the whole world,

Or such magnanimity that thou canst dispense with the world.

According to our creed the detachment of the ‘Anqá is not complete,

For, though it retains no sign, it continues to think of name⁵¹⁶.

If one cannot travel the road without sight, then how

Canst thou forsake the world when thou hast closed thine eyes to it?

The ill repute of Life endureth no more than two days:

O Kalím, I will tell thee how these too passed:

One day was spent in attaching the heart to this and that,

And another day in detaching it from this and that.”

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(11) Muḥammad Ṭáhir Waḥíd of Qazwín (d. 1120/1708-9)⁵¹⁷ was an industrious rather than a great poet: he is said by Riḍá-qulí Khán⁵¹⁸ to have left a Díwán containing 90,000 verses, which, however, were for the most part “tasteless” (maláḥatí na-dásht), and of which only six are quoted as “the best of his poetry,” amongst them the following quatrain testifying to his Shí‘a proclivities:



“Whosoever’s nature is leavened with the love of ‘Alí,

Though he be the constant frequenter of church or synagogue,

Even if, for example, they should bring him into Hell

They would bear him thence to Paradise ere his place there had been heated.”

The main facts of Waḥíd’s life are given by Rieu⁵¹⁹. He was secretary to two successive Prime Ministers of Persia, Mírzá Taqiyyu’d-Dín Muḥammad and Khalífa Sulṭán. In 1055/1645-6 he was appointed court-historiographer to Sháh ‘Abbás II, became a Minister in 1101/1689-90, retired eighteen years later into private life, and died about 1120/ 1708-9. Five manuscripts of his historical monograph are described by Rieu, one of which (Or. 2940) comes down to the twenty-second year of the reign, 1073-4/1663. The remark of the Átash-kada, that these poems were only
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praised on account of the author’s rank, is probably justified. He was, according to Ethé, a friend of the poet Ṣá’ib.
(12) Shawkat⁵²⁰ of Bukhárá (d. 1107/1695-6) is at the present day almost unknown in Persia. He is not even mentioned in the Majma‘u’l-Fuṣaḥá and but briefly in the Riyáḍu’l-‘Árifín, where only two of his verses are cited, together with the description of his eccentric demeanour given by his contemporary Shaykh Muḥammad ‘Alí Láhijí, called Ḥazín, who saw him wandering about in mid-winter, bare-headed and bare-footed, with a piece of felt (namad-pára) over his shoulders and his head covered with snow, which he did not trouble to shake off. Shawkat only deserves mention because of the reputation which he enjoys in Turkey and the influence which he exerted over Turkish poetry, an influence which Gibb emphasizes in several places in his History of Ottoman Poetry⁵²¹.