Medicinal and aromatic plants – industrial profiles

21
Lavandula x heterophylla
and 
L. x allardii
: a puzzling complex
227
S U S Y N   A N D R E W S
22 Comparative study of essential oil quantity and composition 
from ten cultivars of organically grown lavender and lavandin
232
D E N Y S   J .   C H A R L E S ,   E R I C A   N . C .   R E N A U D   AND J A M E S   E .   S I M O N
23 Chemical profiles of lavender oils and pharmacology
243
M A R I A   L I S - B A L C H I N   AND S T E P H E N   H A RT
24 Chemical composition of essential oils from different species, 
hybrids and cultivars of 
Lavandula
251
M A R I A   L I S - B A L C H I N
Index
263
vi
Contents

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Figures
2.1
The diversity of leaf shapes and forms found within the genus 
Lavandula
5
2.2
Diagrammatic representations of the structure of the many-flowered
(bicicinnus) and single-flowered cymes 
6
2.3
Variation in corolla morphology within the genus 
Lavandula
7
2.4
Examples of variation in the calyces within the genus 
Lavandula
, 
illustrating differences in the calyx lobes
8
2.5
Examples illustrating the diversity of bract shapes in the genus 
Lavandula
9
2.6
L. angustifolia
‘Hidcote’ – cultivated at Cambridge University 
Botanic 
Garden           13
2.7      
L. latifolia
– France, Col de Ferrier nr. Grasse. View of flower spike showing 
linear bracts and bracteoles
14
2.8   
L. x intermedia
‘Grosso’ – cultivated at Norfolk Lavender, UK 
15
2.9
L. dentata 
var.
dentata
– Morocco
16
2.10
L. stoechas
subsp. 
stoechas
18
2.11
L. multifida
– close up showing flower spike, Morocco near Oued Laou
21
2.12
L. canariensis
– plant in full bloom, Tenerife near Chio
22
2.13
L. antineae
– cultivated at Cambridge University Botanic Garden
24
2.14
L. subnuda
– cultivated at Cambridge University Botanic Garden.
Section Subnudae
28
2.15
L. aristibracteata
– cultivated at Cambridge University Botanic 
Garden. Section Subnudae
29
2.16
L. bipinnata
– close up of flower, cultivated at Cambridge University
Botanic Garden. Section Chaetostachys
31
5.1
‘Old Major’ helps to collect the harvest, around 1940
57
6.1
Out-buildings and sales area fronted by the display of lavenders
60
6.2
L. stoechas
subsp. 
Stoechas
‘Kew Red’
70
6.3
L. stoechas
viridis
‘Willow Vale’ 
L. angustifolia
Hidcote
71
6.4
L. stoechas
viridis
‘Helmsdale’
72
6.5
L. minutolii
73
9.1
Lavandula
monoterpenes
87
9.2
Lavandula
triterpenoids
90
9.3
Lavandula
flavonoids
91
9.4
Lavandula
hydroxycinnamic acid esters
97
10.1
The lavender oil glands: oil glands on a calyx of ripe lavender
100
10.2
Harvesting at about two tons lavender flowers per hour
101
10.3
Sketches illustrating the modern cylindrical still system
102
10.4
Effects of steam moisture: oil and water on an absorptive surface 
105

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10.5
The two orthodox still schemes mentioned in distillation equipment
108
10.6
Still for small-scale operation and (parameter) tests
110
10.7
Multi-tube condenser: vapour-tube type
111
10.8
Condensers for standard temperate zone conditions
112
10.9
Receiver–separator for oils less dense than water
113
13.1
The spasmolytic effect of commercial 
Lavandula
oils on the electrically-
stimulated guinea-pig ileum 
in vitro
143
13.2
Mode of action of lavender oil on the guinea-pig ileum 
in vitro
145
13.3
The enhancement of spasmolysis following the application of Trequensin, 
a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, suggesting that cAMP is involved
146
13.4
Investigating the possibility of calcium channel involvement using
calcium-free buffers
148
13.5
The effect of lavender oil on the spontaneously contracting uterus of the rat
in vitro
, showing the inhibition of contractions, which at higher lavender 
oil concentrations actually cease altogether
149
13.6
The action of lavender oil on skeletal muscle using the chick biventer muscle
preparation 
in vitro
151
13.7
(a) The action of linalyl acetate on the skeletal muscle showing a spasmolytic
action (b) the action of thyme oil for comparison, showing a rise 
in baseline but no decrease in the size of the contractions
151
20.1
HPLC of the methanolic extract of cell biomass from 
L. vera
MM
216
20.2
The basic physiological characteristics of the 
L. vera
MM cell suspension
218
20.3
Time course of growth (a) and RA biosynthesis (b) by 
L. vera
MM cell 
suspension culture 
219
20.4
Effect of sucrose concentration in the nutrient medium on yields of the cell 
biomass (g DB/g sucrose) and RA (mg RA/g sucrose) 
220
20.5
Time course of growth (a) and RA biosynthesis (b) by 
L. vera
MM cell 
with different concentration of ammonium ions
221
20.6
Time course of growth (a) and RA biosynthesis (b) by 
L. vera
MM cell
with different concentration of nitrate ions
221
20.7
Time course of growth (a) and RA biosynthesis (b) by 
L. vera
MM cell
suspension culture cultivated in LS nutrient medium with different
amounts of KH
2
PO
4
222
21.1
Lavandula x allardii
‘African Pride’
229
21.2
Lavandula x allardii
‘Clone B’
230
viii
List of figures

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Tables
9.1
The major constituents of lavender, lavandin and spike lavender oils
88
9.2
A comparison of the main constituents of lavender oil from different countries          88
9.3
The major essential oils of some 
L. latifolia
and some wild 
Lavandula
taxa 
from Spain and Portugal
89
9.4
Flavones detected in 
Lavandula
species, subspecies and varieties
93
9.5
Some flavones detected in 
Lavandula
species
95
9.6
The distribution of the major flavone glycosides in 
Lavandula
sections 
Stoechas, Dentata, Pterostoechas
and 
Subnuda
95
9.7
The distribution of different flavone subclasses in the six sections of 
the genus 
Lavandula
96
9.8
Anthocyanins of 
Lavandula
flowers: pigments present
96
9.9
Distribution of hydroxycinnamic acid esters in the genus 
Lavandula
96
11.1
L. angustifolia
P. Miller ISO 3515 1987
117
11.2a
Lavandin abrialis ISO 3054 1987 
L. angustifolia
P. Miller
L. latifolia
(L.f ) Medikus
118
11.2
b
Lavandin grosso ISO 8902 1986 
L. angustifolia
P. Miller
L. latifolia
(L.f ) 
Medikus light yellow
118
11.3
Major compounds of lavender oil produced by hydrodiffusion and microwave 
extraction in hexane
121
11.4
Composition of lavandin grosso oil from steam distillation, oil from CO
2
extraction and an absolute
121
11.5
Changes in main chemical components of natural 
L
. hybrids 
collected in Tanaro Valley, Italy
121
11.6
Correlation between high linalool or linalyl acetate content of commercial
essential oils and bioactivity
122
12.1
Effect of lavender and other EOs and fragrance compounds on motility in 
mice after 1 h of inhalation
126
13.1
Evidence for contraction, C and or relaxation, R for extracts and essential 
oils in electrically-stimulated guinea-pig ileum 
in vitro
144
13.2
Evidence for Ca
channel blocking by different extracts of 
Lavandula
species  
148
15.1a
Antibacterial activity of lavender volatile oil against twenty-five 
test bacteria
174
15.1b
Antibacterial activity of lavender oil constituents against twenty-five 
test bacteria
175
15.2
Correlation between linalool and linalyl acetate content per cent of 
lavender volatile oils and antimicrobial activity
176

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16.1
Clinical studies on aromatherapy
181
16.2
Sedative and stimulant EOs
184
16.3
Evidence for transfer of components of EO into blood/brain when applied 
to skin, orally or by inhalation
186
17.1
Modern lavender water
195
17.2
Old English lavender
196
17.3
Eau de cologne (1834)
197
17.4
Fougère-type perfume
198
18.1
Lavandin, spike lavender and lavender uses as natural food flavours 
202
20.1
Callogenesis of 
L. vera
on LS media, supplemented with different 
concentrations of the growth regulators
215
20.2
Content of phenolic acids in cell biomass of 
L. vera
MM
217
20.3
Modified nutrient medium for the production of RA from 
L. vera 
MM
223
22.1
Growth and development of ten cultivars of organically grown lavandin 
and lavender (1999) in Norway, Iowa
237
22.2
Essential oil and quality control evaluation of ten cultivars of organically 
grown lavandin and lavender over 2 years in Norway, Iowa
238
22.3
Comparative evaluation of the oil composition of ten cultivars of organically 
grown lavender, 1999, Norway, Iowa
238
22.4
Enantiomeric distribution of linalool and linalyl acetate in hydrodistilled 
oils of lavandin and lavender grown in Norway, Iowa
239
22.5
Analysis of authentic and commercial lavender oils
240
22.6
Radiocarbon and stable isotope ratio analyses
241
23.1
The predicted effect on guinea-pig ileum based on the percentage of 
components at different retention time intervals
246
23.2
Comparison of the actual effect of essential oils on guinea-pig ileum and 
the predicted effects 
247
23.3
The predicted effect on guinea-pig ileum based on the percentage of 
components at different retention time intervals
248
23.4
Comparison of the predicted effect of essential oil blends on clients/
patients by aromatherapists and by the chemical composition with 
their actual effect on guinea-pig ileum
249
24.1
Composition of French lavender (ISO 3515) (
L. angustifolia
P. Miller) 
compared to lavandin hybrids
251
24.2
Chemical composition of lavandin and cultivars
252
24.3
Chemical composition of 
Lavandula
species and cultivars
253
24.4
Chemical composition of 
L. latifolia
253
24.5
Chemical composition of 
L. stoechas
species and their chemotypes
254
24.6
Chemical composition of 
L. luisieri
and its chemotypes
255
24.7
Chemical composition of 
L. viridis 
oil
255
24.8
L. pinnata
L. il. 
var. pinnata
grown on Madeira
256
24.9
Aroma profiles of selected 
Lavandula
species
258
24.10
Aroma profiles of selected 
Lavandula
species
259
24.11
Lavandula angustifoli
a aroma profile compared to Bulgarian Lavender Oil
260
24.12
Composition of different floral parts of a lavender (
L. angustifolia
) clone
261
x
List of tables

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