Medicinal and aromatic plants – industrial profiles

Comparison of aroma profile to distilled oil
Since these aroma profiles are produced by headspace analysis of the leaves and stems of living
plants, while the essential oils are prepared by distillation of the leaves, stems and flowers of 
Table 24.9
Aroma profiles of selected 
Lavandula
species (% composition)
Species
Angustifolia
Dentata
Stoechas
Lanata
Spica
Viridis
Component

-pinene
0.5
1.4
2.1
1.4
0.8
2
Sabinene
0.7
3.6
0.7
0.8
5.4
2.8

-pinene
0.2
5.1
0.4
1.1
1.2
1.9
Myrcene
2.8
1.2
0.8
1.1
2.9
2.6
Cymenes*
3.8
0.4
0.7
0.2
0.7
7.5
Multi-component peak**
20.5
43.4
20.8
10.8
27.1
24.9
Ocimene
0.5
—
—
1.4
0.1
0.3
Fenchone
—
3.4
33
0.1
—
—

-terpinolene
1.1
—
0.8
2.1
0.6
0.3
Linalool
0.5
3
0.6
4.2
2
14.7
Camphor
1.7
2
26.2
39.2
10.9
12.4
Polycyclic ketones*
—
1.5
0.6
—
1.9
1.3
Borneol
4.6
—
—
1.2
0.5
1.3
Lavandulol
—
—
—
0.4
—
—
Terpineols*
—
1.4
0.2
0.6
6.7
4.7
Methyl thymyl ether
—
—
—
—
—
Linalyl acetate
0.2
—
—
—
—
1.5
Bornyl acetate
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.1
Lavandulyl acetate
—
—
—
—
—
—
Carvacrol
—
—
—
0.1
—
—
Neryl/geranyl acetate
0.2
—
—
—
0.1
1.3
Caryophyllene
15.9
0.4
0.5
7.2
1.1
—
Bergamotenes*
1.7
1.2
—
—
1.5
—
Germacrenes*
—
—
—
1.9
4.3
0.6
Selinenes*
—
1.6
0.2
—
0.3
1.8
Farnesenes*
—
1
—
—
1.3
—
Bisabolenes*
—
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.5
—
Cadinenes*
7.1
0.4
0.2
—
1.2
—
Selinadiene
—
—
—
—
—
4.9
Other sesquiterpenes
3.5
3.4
0.4
3
4.5
8.3
Caryophyllene oxide
2
0.3
—
0.7
0.7
0.1
Unknown diterpenes
—
—
0.1
0.5
—
1.2
Total sesquiterpenes
35.9
8.5
1.7
12.3
14.7
15.6
Source: Weisenfeld (1999).
Notes
* Sum of isomers.
** May include 

-phellandrene, cis-ocimene, limonene, cineole.

---

Chemical composition of different lavender essential oils
259
harvested plants, comparisons between the oil and headspace compositions are of limited value.
We can assume that inclusion of the flowers in the oil greatly influences its composition
(Weisenfeld, 1999).
Table 24.11 shows a comparison of the composition of the aroma profile of 
L. angustifolia
with
that of the steam distilled oil of Bulgarian lavender, presumably derived mostly from this same
species.
The most obvious differences between the headspace and the distilled oil are in the amounts
of linalool and linalyl acetate. The level of linalyl acetate is of great interest in a lavender oil,
because the quality of the oil is evaluated by its ester content; the higher the ester content, the
finer the oil. Therefore, the low percentage of these two components in the headspace of the
leaves is of particular interest. Again, exclusion of the flowers from the aroma profile, is an
Table 24.10
Aroma profiles of selected 
Lavandula
species 
(% composition)
Species
Heterophylla
Pinnata
Multifida
Component

-pinene
0.9
0.1
0.3
Sabinene
1.5
0.1
—

-pinene
1.3
0.1
—
Myrcene
0.7
5.8
2
Cymenes*
0.3
0.5
0.2
Multi-component peak**
7.7
2.2
1.2
Ocimene
—
11
28.2
Fenchone
0.4
0.1
—

-terpinolene
—
12.8
8.3
Linalool
9.3
0.1
—
Camphor
14
0.1
—
Polycyclic ketones
0.5
—
—
Borneol
0.1
—
—
Lavandulol
16.8
—
—
Terpineols*
—
0.3
—
Methyl thymyl ether
—
0.5
3.3
Linalyl acetate
—
—
—
Bornyl acetate
0.3
—
—
Lavandulyl acetate
—
—
—
Carvacrol
0.1
27
12.8
Neryl/geranyl acetate
0.3
—
—
Caryophyllene
4.3
3.7
2.8
Bergamotenes*
—
0.1
Germacrenes*
2.1
—
1.5
Selinenes*
1
—
—
Farnesenes*
0.4
7
3
Bisabolenes*
0.1
13.6
9.9
Other sesquiterpenes
9.4
1.2
—
Caryophyllene oxide
4.4
—
—
Diterpenes
—
—
—
Total sesquiterpenes
17.3
25.6
17.2
Source: Weisenfeld (1999).
Notes
* Sum of isomers.
** May include 

-phellandrene, cis-ocimene, limonene, cineole.

---

260
Maria Lis-Balchin
important point and may account for most of the disparity. However, the inherent differences
between a headspace sampling and a steam distillation method cannot be discounted as a factor
(Weisenfeld, 1999).
Another interesting difference between the composition of the headspace and the oil is 
the distribution of the sesquiterpenes. Both contain caryophyllene, a sesquiterpene found 
widely in nature. However, the headspace contains approximately 4 per cent of a tricyclo
sesquiterpene eluting on the back of the caryophyllene peak. This peak does not appear in the
oil. In addition, the oil contains farnesene and germacrene isomers, while the headspace contains
considerable amounts of cadinene and bergamotene isomers (listed as ‘other sesquiterpenes’ in
the legend).
In general, the headspace is dominated by terpenes and sesquiterpenes, while the oil contains
mostly alcohols and esters.
Table 24.11 Lavandula angustifoli
a aroma profile compared
to Bulgarian Lavender Oil (results expressed as
per cent)
Component
Aroma profile
Lavender oil

-thujene
0.3
0.1
Cymenes (3 isomers)
3
0.2
Sabinene
0.7
0.1
Myrcene
2.8
0.6

-phellandrene
1.5
—
Delta-3-carene
9.2
0.1
Trans-ocimene
0.5
2.3
Compound peak*
21
5.5
Sabinene hydrate
0.3
—
Linalool oxide
trace
0.2

-terpinolene
1.1
—
Linalool
0.5
27.7
Octenyl acetate
—
1
Camphor
1.7
0.3
Lavandulol
—
0.7
Borneol
4.6
0.6
Para-cymenol (2-isomers)
1.8
—
Terpinene-4-ol
—
3.6

-terpineol
—
1.3
Linalyl acetate
0.2
39.1
Lavendulyl acetate
0.4
3.7
Neryl acetate
trace
0.4
Geranyl acetate
0.2
0.8
Coumarin
—
0.1
Caryophyllene
13**
3.9
Other sesquiterpenes
22.9
2.3
Caryophyllene oxide
2
0.4
Source: Wiesenfeld (1999).
Notes
* May include 

-phellandrene, cis-ocimene, limonene, cineole.
** Contains approximately 30 per cent of a tricyclo sesquiterpene.
Aroma profile is from dynamic headspace purge.
Bulgarian oil is steam distilled.

---

Chemical composition of different lavender essential oils
261
Reasons for differences: overall view
The main reasons for the differences seen in the two modes of odour ‘extraction’ is probably due
to the fact that only leaves were used in the headspace analysis. Another reason could be that of
the time of day the ‘sample’ headspace was taken, which can be greatly influenced by the 
temperature and amount of sunlight at different times of the day.
The odour of the flowers bears a distinct effect on the whole odour of the plant. Recent 
analyses of the essential oils of flowers compared to the leaves. Also show that there is a distinc-
tive difference in the action of flowers and leaves on smooth muscle which indicates a difference
in chemical composition (Lis-Balchin and Hart, 2000).
Lavender extracts: action on smooth muscle
The guinea-pig ileum was again used to study the effect of Lavender extracts: action on smooth
muscle. Extracts were made from:
•
Dried lavender flowers (commercial lavender, possibly 
L. angustifolia
)
•
Freshly-picked 
L. angustifolia
flowers
•
Freshly-picked 
L. angustifolia
leaves
•
Freshly-picked 
L. stoechas
leaves.
Three different hydrophilic extracts were made from each plant part: (a) cold methanolic extract;
(b) a tea, made with boiling water; (c) hydrosol, that is, the water remaining after steam/water
distillation. And this was compared against the steam/water-distilled essential oils.
The extracts were tested on guinea-pig ileum, with and without electrical stimulation 
in vitro
,
using the same conditions as described previously. It was found that there was a distinctive 
difference between the effect of the flowers and leaves of the fresh 
L. angustifolia
water extracts on
the smooth muscle. The tea and hydrosol of the flowers had a relaxant effect, while the leaves had
a contractile effect at similar concentrations. Surprisingly though, the same leaf extracts of 
L. stoechas
showed only a relaxant effect. However, the methanolic extracts and essential oils of
both the 
L. angustifolia
leaves and flowers had a relaxant effect, as did the 
L. stoechas
essential oil.
Table 24.12
Composition of different floral parts of
a lavender (
L. angustifolia
) clone
Component
Flower
Corolla
Calyx
spike
(Z)-b-ocimene
1.8
3.8
1.4
(E)-b-ocimene
0.7
trace
0.6
3-octanone
0.8
0.1
0.2
Camphor
0.3
1.7
0.2
1,8-cineole
0.7
0.9
0.2
Linalool
31.1
20.7
34.2
Linalyl acetate
45.2
30.0
47.2
Terpinen-4-ol
0.2
0.1
0.2
Lavandulyl acetate
2.4
3.5
2.2
Lavandulol
0.4
6.9
0.4

-terpineol
0.1
0.6
trace
Source: Lawrence, 1995.

---

This does not therefore correlate with the essential oil composition, which is very different in the
two species. The composition of the water-soluble extracts appears to be responsible for the 
differences between the leaves and flowers of 
L. angustifolia
. However, the leaves of a totally 
different genus, that of most scented 
Pelargonium
species and cultivars studied produced a similar
contractile effect in contrast to the relaxant effect of the corresponding essential oils. 
Geranium
robertianum
leaf extracts, including the methanolic one all produced a relaxant effect, although
from the same family, with similar water-soluble components. The reason(s) for this differing
effect is therefore at present obscure.
There is also an apparent difference within the flower itself (Table 24.12). Data presented by
Lawrence (1995) shows that there are substantial differences in the percentage of all the main
components within the corolla and calyx compared to the flower spike in 
L. angustifolia
clone.
References
Boelens, M.H. (1995) Chemical and sensory evaluation of lavandula oils, 
Perf. Flav
., 20, 23–51
Boelens, M.H. (1986) The essential oil of spike lavender (
Lavandula latifolia
Vill. (syn. 
L. spica
DC) 
Perf.
Flav
., 11, 43–63
Figuereido, A.C., Barroso, J.G., Pedro, L.G., Sevinate-Pinto, I., Antunes, T., Fontinha, S.S., Looman, A.
and Scheffer, J.J.C. (1995) Composition of the essential oil of 
Lavandula pinnata
L. fi, var. 
pinnata
grown
on Madeira. 
Flav. Frag. J
., 10, 93–96
Garcia-Vallejo, M.C., Garcia-Vallejo, I. and Velasco-Negueruela, A. (1989) Essential oils of the genus
Lavandula
L. in Spain. 
Proc. ICEOFF
, New Delhi, 1989, vol. 4, pp. 15–26
Garcia-Vallejo, M.C., Garcia-Vallejo, I. and Velasco-Negueruela, A. (1989) Essential oils of the genus
Lavandula
L. in Spain. 
Proc. ICEOFF
, New Delhi, 1989, vol. 4, pp. 15–26
Lawrence, B. (1995) Progress in essential oils, 
Perf. Flav
., 20, 30
Lawrence, B. (1976–8; 1979–80; 1981–7) Progress in essential oils, Reprints from 
Perf. Flav
., Allured
Pub. Corp.
Lis-Balchin and Hart (2000) To be published.
Naef, R. and Morris, A.F. (1992) Lavender–Lavandin: A comparison. 
Rivista Ital. EPPOS
, Numero 
spaciale, 364–77
Piccaglia, R. (1998) Aromatic plants: a world of flavouring compounds. 
Agro Food Industry Hi-Tech
, 93,
12–15
Skoula, M., Abidi, C. and Kokkalou, E. (1996) Essential oil variation of 
Lavandula stoechas
L. ssp. 
stoechas
growing wild in Crete (Greece). 
Biochem. System. Ecol
., 24, 255–60
Tucker, A.O. (1981) The correct name for lavandin and its cultivars Labiatae. 
Baileya
, 21, 131–3
Tucker, A.O. and Lawrence, B.M. (1987) Botanical nomenclature of commercial sources of essential oils,
concretes and absolutes. In: 
Herbs
, 
Spices and Medicinal Plants: Recent Advances in Botany, Horticulture and
Pharmacology
. Oryx Press, Phoenix, A.Z., L.E. Craker and J.E.Simon (eds), pp. 183–220
Wiesenfeld, E. (1999) Aroma profiles of various 
lavandula
species, Noville, South Hackensack, NJ, USA,
http://www.sisweb.com.referenc/applnote/noville.htm
262
Maria Lis-Balchin

---

abortifacient, 39, 49
abortion of dead child, 39, 49, 140
abrialis, 81, 82, 85, 117, 118, 140, 236–40,
251–2
absolute, 119–21
acaricidal, 1, 210
acetylcholine, 134, 145, 163, 244
acne, 132
action on uterus, 149
adrenaline, 243
adrenoceptor, 145, 244, 249
adulteration, 1, 117, 119, 121–3, 133, 176, 189,
207, 234, 240, 251
advertising, 61, 62
afterbirth expulsion, 39, 40, 49, 140
alertness, 124, 185
alkaloid, 86
Allelopathy, 211
allergic airborne contact dermatitis, 1, 130, 190
allergic reaction, 124, 130–1, 190
Alopecia areata
, 1, 132, 189

-wave, 125, 129, 133, 164, 185, 209–10
alternative medicine, 188, 190
Alzheimer’s disease, 168
anaesthetic, 131, 134, 162, 208
analgesic, 245
anosmic, 185
anthocyanins, 86, 96
antibacterial activity, 122, 124, 173–6
anticancer, 124, 131–2
anticonvulsive, 124, 127–8, 130, 133, 134, 142,
162–3, 168
antifungal activity, 1, 122, 124, 173, 176–7
anti-inflammatory, 132, 208
antimicrobial action, 171–2, 174
antimicrobial properties, 1, 43, 171–7
antioxidant action, 122, 171, 186, 215, 224
antiseptic, 43, 76, 86, 130, 132, 202
antispasmodic: 
see also
spasmolytic effect, 130
anxiety-relieving, 125, 129–30, 167, 185, 187
arithmetic: 
see
mathematical
aroma: 
see also 
odour, 140, 141, 168, 203, 235,
237–8, 243
aroma profiles, 256–8
aromachology, 134
aromatherapists, 1, 40, 46, 154, 173, 184,
189–91, 243, 246–9
aromatherapy uses, 1, 124–5, 130, 134, 152, 154,
168, 180–91, 198, 204
asthma, 208, 211
atropine-like, 129, 145, 163
authentification, 207, 240
autonomic nervous system, 125, 126, 129, 209,
243–4
bactericidal: 
see also
antimicrobial action, 130
bath, 36, 127, 132, 168, 180–1, 187, 195, 201,
204
bed sheets, 155, 157–8, 163
behaviour, 164, 168, 187, 245

-wave, 124, 127, 133, 164, 185, 209
binding sites, 141
bioactivity, 122
blood–brain-barrier, 126, 163, 186
blood flow, 142, 185
Blood Pressure (BP), 133, 168, 185, 201, 208
brain function (human), 129, 162–3, 168, 185,
243, 245
brain waves: 
see also
, 
, delta, theta waves, 142
brain stimulant, 128
bronchial muscle: 
see also 
tracheal muscle, 244
burns, 1, 43
business plan, 60–1, 78
calcium channels, 147–8, 244
callus cultures, 214
calming, 155–7, 162–4, 169, 201
cAMP, 1, 129, 146, 163, 244
Index

---

camphor, 1, 87–9, 120–1, 209, 234, 237–9,
251–6, 258–9, 261
camphoraceous, 77, 152
carbon dioxide (CO
2
) extraction, 120–1, 175
carrier oil, 180–2, 204, 243
cell action potentials, 162
cell cultures, 141, 214–26
central nervous system: 
see
CNS
certified organic, 233
cGMP, 129, 146, 163
Chaytor, D.A., 51, 52, 53, 56
chemical composition, 117–24, 133, 171–3, 189,
243–50, 251–62, 235, 238, 247–9, 251–61
chemical profiles, 243
chemo-preventative, 131
chemotherapy, 173, 187–8
chemotypes, 189, 255
chick biventer muscle, 150–1
childbirth, 39, 40, 49, 168, 187, 190
childhood atopic eczema, 189
chiral, 126, 133, 207, 236, 239–41
chiral columns, 1, 122–3, 207
cleanliness, 44
clinical study, 167–9, 181, 186–90, 210, 243
clinical trials: 
see
clinical study
CNS, 124, 128–9, 134, 142, 181, 208,
244–5, 249
CNV, 142, 163–4, 185, 245
cognitive skills, 125
cold distempers, 50
colic, 39, 40, 42, 43, 49, 140, 201
commercial essential oils, 122, 129, 140, 143,
184, 189, 207, 251, 256
complementary therapy, 189
concrete, 119–20
condensers, 107–12
conidial germination, 177
contact allergic response, 130
contact dermatitis, 212
Contingent Negative Variation: 
see
CNV
contraction, 1, 140–1, 143, 144–5, 148–50, 184,
246–9, 261
convulsions, 39, 40, 41, 43, 155, 162–3
corolla, 7, 261
corolla colour, 81–4
cosmetics, 171, 200, 214
coumarins, 92, 97, 208
crop rotation, 232
Culpeper, Nicholas, 39, 40, 43, 46, 48, 49, 140,
155, 201
cultivars round the world, 80–5, 232, 234
cuttings, 58, 65, 78, 118
cycles, 8
cylindrical still system, 102
dead foetuses, 40
delta waves, 129
dementia, 187
depression, 189, 211
dermal application, 126, 140, 204
dermatitis, 130–1, 190
dermatomycoses, 204
diabetes, 208
dietary supplements, 211
distillation, 100–16, 37, 42, 45, 46, 48, 59, 256
distilled waters, 37, 40, 50, 155
dog, 141, 143
double-blind studies, 188
dry lavender, 1, 78, 144–5, 148, 161, 200–4,
212, 234–5, 261
eau de Cologne, 46, 119, 190, 197, 203, 248
eczema, 243
EEG, 124, 125, 129–30, 163–4, 167, 169,
209–10
electrical activity, 168
electroencephalography: 
see
EEG
electromyography, 185
enantiomeric columns: 
see
chiral
enantiomers, 122–3, 126–7, 133, 148, 175–6,
258–60
epilepsy, 37, 38, 40, 41, 48, 49, 50, 162, 188
esoteric, 182
essential oils, 1, 86–9, 110, 101, 115, 124–33,
171–4, 180–90, 212, 232, 234, 237–9, 243–9,
261–2
extraction process, 119–21
extracts, 130, 144–5, 148, 171, 173–4, 174, 207,
261–2
fainting, 38, 39, 40, 49, 50, 140, 155, 157,
200–1
fertilizers, 206, 232, 251
fish, 128
fixed oils, 121–2
flavones, 86, 91, 93, 95, 96
flavonoids, 86, 91, 92, 98, 99
flowers, 92, 144–5, 148, 256, 258–9, 261–2
food flavouring, 200–2
food preservation, 1, 171
fougère, 198
fragrance: 
see also
odour and perfume, 126, 155,
185
French Lavender, 117
264
Index

---

frost-hardy lavenders, 69–71
functional imaging in brain, 126
fungus, 55, 118
GABA, 127, 133, 163, 210
GC and GC/MS analysis, 122, 207, 235–6,
245, 257
Geller-type-conflict-test, 133
Gerard, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48,
140, 201
germination of seeds, 207
glutamate, 133–4, 152, 245
glutamate-binding, 128, 130, 142, 162–3
gram-positive and negative bacteria, 172
Grosso, 1, 14, 
15
, 55, 69, 81, 82, 85, 117, 118,
120, 121, 140, 144, 236–40, 251–2
growing conditions, 57–9, 76–7
guinea-pig ileum, 123, 129, 141, 143–8, 184,
244, 246, 248–9, 261
gut microflora, 173
hair growth, 132
half-hardy lavenders, 71–2
hardy lavenders, 69
headache: 
see 
pain in head
head lice, 36
headspace, 131, 256–61
healing, 1, 132, 134, 181, 190, 204
Heart Rate (HR), 129, 164, 168, 209, 243
hedonic uses, 160–2, 165, 167
heel cuttings, 58
herbal pillows: 
see
pillows
Hidcote, 12, 
13
, 14, 54, 55, 68, 82, 85, 202,
236–40
Hildegard, Abbess, 35, 36, 39, 43, 44, 46,
47, 140
History of nomenclature, 51–6
History of usage, 35–50
Homes for the Aged, 128
honey bee, 133
hospices, 128, 190
hospitals, 128, 180, 190
household cleaning, 203
human, 1, 127, 141, 245
husbandry: 
see also
growing conditions, 55, 74,
118–19, 206
hydrodiffusion, 121
hydrodistillation, 235
hydrosol, 261
hydroxycinnamic acid, 92, 96, 97
hypoglycaemic effect, 132, 208
hysteria, 43
inhalation, 1, 125–8, 130–3, 162, 186, 188,
190, 208
insect repellent, 203–4
insects, 1, 55, 132, 211, 235
insomnia, 128, 201
intercropping, 232
in vitro 
(pharmacology), 1, 141, 143–52, 184,
185–6, 261
in vivo 
(pharmacology), 1, 140, 142
irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), 181
irritation, 131, 204
ISO, 117, 118, 207
isomers: 
see
enantiomers
isotopes, 207
L. angustifolia
, 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 11, 12, 
13
, 33, 53,
54, 55, 58, 67, 68, 77, 80–5, 86–93, 97–8,
117–20, 134, 140, 142, 144, 148, 152, 182,
194–5, 200–2, 206–8, 210–11, 214, 228,
233–4, 237–9, 251–3, 257–8, 260–2
L. angustifolia x L. latifolia
, 117, 118, 120
L. antineae
, 5, 10, 20, 23, 24, 95
lavandin 119–21, 206, 234, 236–40, 251–2
lavandin absolute, 119–21
lavandin concrete, 119–21
lavandin oil, 119–21, 201–2
Lavandula
species/hybrids, 2–34
lavender absolute, 119, 195, 201–2
lavender bags, 46, 158, 200, 203
lavender concrete, 119, 201
lavender cultivars, 59, 80–5
lavender distillate, 37
lavender drops, 156–7, 200
lavender essence, 142
lavender essential oil, 1, 37, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46,
57–9, 117–23, 119, 121, 133, 141–52, 162–4,
168, 174–6, 180–90, 194–8, 200–4, 206–9,
214, 243
lavender oil: 
see 
lavender essential oil
lavender oil glands, 100
lavender products, 59
lavender spirit, 201
lavender straw, 127, 167
lavender tincture, 200–1
lavender vinegar, 200
lavender water, 37, 143, 156–7, 161, 195–6, 200
L. bippinata
, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 30, 
31
L. canariensis
, 5, 7, 9, 10, 20, 21, 
22
, 25, 26, 73, 96
L. dentata
, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 
15
, 17, 33, 51, 52,
71, 85, 89–93, 97, 144, 150, 152, 208, 227–8,
253, 256–8
L. dentata x L. angustifolia
, 227
Index
265

---

L. dentata x L. latifolia
, 227–8
leaf shapes, 5
leaves, 91–2, 144–5, 148, 256, 258–9, 261–2
L. hybrida
, 228
lice, 36, 43, 45, 47, 140
limbic system, 1, 181, 186
linalool, 1, 87–9, 151, 117–21, 124–8, 130–4,
140, 142–4, 146, 149–53, 162–3, 175–6, 185,
208, 234, 237–41, 245, 251–5, 258–61
linalyl acetate, 1, 87–9, 151, 117, 118, 119, 120,
121, 140, 142, 146, 149–52, 162–3, 175–6,
185, 208, 234, 237–41, 251–4, 258–61
lipid peroxidation, 207
Listeria monocytogenes
, 122, 175–6
liver metabolising enzymes, 142
L. lanata
, 1, 13, 14, 51, 52, 71, 91, 93, 252–3,
256–8
L. lanata x L. angustifolia
, 59, 69
L. latifolia
, 1, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 
14
, 33, 51, 52, 80,
86, 89–93, 97, 117, 120, 133, 140, 194, 208,
214, 228, 234, 252–3
L. lusieri
, 18, 255
L. minutolii
, 5, 10, 20, 23, 73, 94, 95
L. multifida
, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 
21
, 26, 51, 52, 91,
94, 96, 208, 254, 256–7, 259
L. officinalis
, 53, 54, 119, 256
L. pinnata
, 1, 5, 10, 20, 22, 25, 26, 51, 52, 73,
95, 96, 256, 256–7, 259
L. spica
, 1, 11, 12, 35, 36, 42, 51, 52, 53, 144,
152, 227, 256–8, 3, 5, 8, 10, 17, 18, 19, 35,
37, 38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 48, 51, 52, 69, 70, 77,
80, 89–93, 95–6, 144–5, 148, 152, 201, 208,
254, 256–8, 261–2
L. stoechas
, 17, 
18
, 19, 35, 37, 38, 40, 42, 44, 48,
51–2, 67, 69, 70, 77, 80, 82–3, 89, 91–3,
95–6, 152, 208, 254, 256, 258, 261
L. stoechas
subspecies, 
see L. stoechas
L. stoechas
Ssp. 
Luisieri
, 18, 89
L. stoechas x viridis
, 34, 69, 
71
, 72
L. subnuda
, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 27, 28
L. vera
, 214–26, 35, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42, 48, 51,
52, 206, 227
L. viridis
, 5, 7, 9, 10, 17, 18, 19, 51, 52, 71, 89,
91, 93, 144, 148, 255, 256–8
L. x allardii
, 10, 32, 33, 227–31
L. x heterophylla
, 10, 33, 227–30, 256–7, 259,
227–31
L. x intermedia
, 2, 13, 53, 54, 55, 58, 68, 77,
81–5, 140, 234
mad dogs, 50
mail order, 62, 63
man: 
see
human
marketing, 61, 77
massage, 1, 43, 45, 126–7, 141, 168, 185–90, 243
mathematical, 124–5, 165, 185, 189
membrane receptor, 141
memory, 125, 164–5, 189
mental depression, 43
mentally-challenged, 190
mice, 125, 128, 133–4, 141–2, 144, 162–3, 245
microsomal enzyme induction, 132
microwave extraction, 120
migraine, 37, 140, 201
miscellaneous uses, 200–5
mites, 210
mixtures of essential oils, 243, 248–9
monoterpenes, 87, 128, 131, 214, 245, 246–9,
257, 260
mood, 125, 164–6, 189
mosquito repellent, 204
moth repellent, 157–9, 163
motility in mice, 125, 142
munstead, 12, 54, 68, 81, 202, 236–40
myogenic, 141, 144–5, 150
National Plant Collection, 64
nervous system, 124
neurogenic, 141, 144–5
neurological, 187
neurophysiological measurements, 129
NMDA, 133
Norfolk lavender, 57
nursery management, 62
occult, 44
odour, 36, 42, 45, 46, 47, 125, 128, 133–4,
164–8, 185, 190, 208, 261
oil glands, 100
Old English, 14, 55, 69, 81
oleum spicae: 
see 
spike oil
oral, 130, 181, 185–6
organically-grown lavender, 79, 232–42
over-wintering, 75
pains (head), 38, 39, 40, 43, 45, 48, 155, 201,
243
pains (other), 131, 181, 190, 245
palpitations, 37, 38, 48
palsy, 35, 36, 38, 43, 47, 48
panic attacks, 37, 38, 48, 201
parasympathetic, 186, 244
parenteral, 140
Parkinson’s, 37, 38, 47, 48
patch testing, 212
patents, 128, 133, 204
266
Index

---

patients, 186–90, 246, 248–9
percentage of components, 246–8
percutaneous, 126–7
perfume, 1, 166, 194, 196–8, 200, 203, 243,
248–9
perfumery uses, 1, 194–9, 119–20, 124, 133,
140, 214
perillyl alcohol, 131, 208–9
perineal discomfort, 133, 168, 187
periodontal disease, 132
peristaltic activity, 143
pests and control, 55, 66–7, 79, 232–3
pharmaceutical products, 171
pharmacological action, 1, 144, 148, 151, 162,
163, 165, 169, 247, 249
pharmacology, 123, 140–54, 207, 243–50
phenolics, 86, 98, 216–17
phenols, 172
pheromones, 211
phosphodiesterase inhibitors, 146
photosensitization, 130, 190
phrenic nerve diaphragm, 129, 131, 141, 150,
163, 208, 245
physical work, 133
physically-challenged, 190
physiological, 125, 129, 140, 187, 243
phytochemistry, 86–99
pigmentation, 130, 190
pigs, 127, 167
pillows, 1, 126–7, 140, 200, 203, 212
placebo, 130, 155, 168, 187–8
plant growth, 133
pleasant, 155, 158, 165–7, 208–9
poisonous creatures, 50
post-synaptic, 129, 163
potassium channels, 147–8, 244
pot-pourri, 74, 202–3
potting, 66, 74
pregnancy, 190
propagation, 58, 64
pruning, 75–6
psychological effects, 46, 129, 155–70, 187, 209,
243, 249
psychopharmacological effect, 128
psycho-physiological response, 125, 209
PUFA’s, 132
pulmonary congestion, 36
rabbit, 141
radiocarbon and stable isotope analysis, 236, 241
rats, 128, 141, 162, 208, 245
receivers/separators, 111–13
red lavender, 42, 43, 156–7, 200–1
relaxant and relaxation: 
see also 
spasmolytic effect,
1, 76, 125, 127–8, 133, 140, 144, 157, 164,
184, 190, 201, 202, 243, 245–8
respiratory effect, 129, 168, 190
retail industry, 57–9, 60–75, 76–9
retention time, 236, 245–8
root rot, 55, 118
rosmarinic acid, 96, 207, 214–26
rotation crop, 206
safety of essential oils, 141, 190
section 
stoechas
, 
see L. stoechas
sedative, 125, 127–9, 130, 133–4, 142, 162–3,
167–9
seed propagation, 65, 117
senile dementia, 168
sensitization, 130, 188
sesquiterpenes, 120, 131, 194, 246–8, 257–60
sexual attraction, 243
skeletal muscle, 123, 129, 141, 150–2, 243
skin, 129, 180–1, 185–8, 209, 243
skin penetration, 133
skin treatment, 204
sleep, 126, 128–9, 140, 163, 167–8, 190, 211
smell: 
see 
odour
smooth muscle, 1, 123, 141, 143, 145–8, 150–2,
243–4, 247–9, 261
snake bite, 50
soil conditions, 66, 74, 77
solvent extraction, 119–21
sores, 43
spasmogenic effect, 129, 141, 144–5, 148, 153,
244–5
spasmolytic effect, 1, 128–9, 141–52, 244–5
spike lavender, 1, 35, 36, 40, 42, 117, 119, 120,
133, 140, 152, 175–6, 194, 203
spike oil, 37, 39, 44, 88, 133, 140, 201–2
spirits of lavender, 156–7
standardization, 117–23
steam distillation and theory, 103–6, 115, 117,
119, 120, 121, 174, 235, 258–61
still rooms, 45, 195
stills, 37, 45, 102, 103, 105–7, 108, 110, 206
stimulate/stimulation: 
see also 
contraction, 127,
243
storage life, 176
stress, 127, 167, 190, 201, 243, 245
structure of flowers, 6
subcutaneous route, 245
super, 81–2, 85, 236–40, 251–2
supercritical CO
2
extraction: 
see 
carbon dioxide
extraction
suspension culture, 216–23
Index
267

---

sympathetic nervous system, 186, 243–4
synthetic, 1, 119, 187, 243
taxonomy, 2–34
teas: 
see
tissanes
tender lavenders, 73
terpeneless oil, 119
terpenoids: 
see also
monoterpenes, 171–3
theta wave, 129–30, 164
tissanes, 200, 202
tomography, 142
toothache, 39, 40, 43, 49, 201
topographical brain maps, 129
toxicity, 1, 131, 133, 173, 187, 189
tracheal muscle, 149
transdermal absorption, 133
travel sickness, 127, 167
triterpenoids, 90
unilateral supratentorial brain tumours, 134
ureteric stones, 185
uterus, 141, 149
vacuum distillation, 119
very hardy lavenders, 67–9
voice loss, 39, 40, 43, 49, 156
volatile oils: essential oils
water-soluble extracts, 148, 208, 261–2
weed control, 232–3
women’s periods, 40, 140
wound, 156, 181, 204
268
Index