Russia Adv – 1ac

Impact – Disease

Space colonization solves for HIV, aging, and other immune related illnesses

Siegfried 02 - Integrated Defense Systems at Boeing.

William H.; “Space Colonization—Benefits for the World”; http://www.aiaa.org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/participate/uploads/acf628b.pdf

Many current human problems are the result of failures of the body’s natural immune system. We can diagnose many of these problems and have made great strides in ameliorating the symptoms, but to date, understanding immune system function and enhancement is seminal. Both United States and Russian long-term space missions have induced similar red blood cell and immune system changes. Hematological and immunological changes observed during, or after, space missions have been quite consistent. Decreases in red cell mass were reported in Gemini, Apollo, Skylab and Soyuz, and Mir programs—probably due to diminished rates of erythrocyte production. Space flight at microgravity levels may produce changes in white blood cell morphology and a compromise of the immune system. Skylab studies indicated a decrease in the number of T lymphocytes and some impairment in their function. Certain United States and Russian findings suggest that space flight induces a transient impairment in immune system function at the cellular level. Space flight offers a clinical laboratory unlike any place on Earth that may lead to an improved understanding of the function of the human immune system. Perhaps cures of aging, HIV, and other immune function-related illnesses can result from a comprehensive approach to Space Colonization.
Solves cancer and many other diseases

Rampelotto 11- Department of Biology, Federal University of Santa Maria

Pabulo Henrique, January, “Why Send Humans to Mars? Looking Beyond Science”, http://journalofcosmology.com/Mars151.html

The study of human physiology in the Martian environment will provide unique insights into whole-body physiology, and in areas as bone physiology, neurovestibular and cardiovascular function. These areas are important for understanding various terrestrial disease processes (e.g. osteoporosis, muscle atrophy, cardiac impairment, and balance and co-ordination defects). Moreover, medical studies in the Martian environment associated with researches in space medicine will provide a stimulus for the development of innovative medical technology, much of which will be directly applicable to terrestrial medicine. In fact, several medical products already developed are space spin-offs including surgically implantable heart pacemaker, implantable heart defibrillator, kidney dialysis machines, CAT scans, radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer, among many others. Undoubtedly, all these space spin-offs significantly improved the human`s quality of life.

Impact – Econ

Mars colonization solves the economy

Rampelotto 11- Department of Biology, Federal University of Santa Maria

Pabulo Henrique, January, “Why Send Humans to Mars? Looking Beyond Science”, http://journalofcosmology.com/Mars151.html

At the economical level, both the public and the private sector might be beneficiated with a manned mission to Mars, especially if they work in synergy. Recent studies indicate a large financial return to companies that have successfully commercialized NASA life sciences spin-off products. Thousands of spin-off products have resulted from the application of space-derived technology in fields as human resource development, environmental monitoring, natural resource management, public health, medicine and public safety, telecommunications, computers and information technology, industrial productivity and manufacturing technology and transportation. Besides, the space industry has already a significant contribution on the economy of some countries and with the advent of the human exploration of Mars, it will increase its impact on the economy of many nations. This will include positive impact on the economy of developing countries since it open new opportunities for investments.

Impact – Global Peace

Mars colonization uniquely solves for global peace and Cooperation

Rampelotto 11- Department of Biology, Federal University of Santa Maria

Pabulo Henrique, January, “Why Send Humans to Mars? Looking Beyond Science”, http://journalofcosmology.com/Mars151.html

Furthermore, the benefits of close cooperation among countries in space exploration have been made clear on numerous missions. International crews have been aboard the Space Shuttle many times, and the Mir Space Station has hosted space explorers from many nations. After the realization of the International Space Station, human exploratory missions to Mars are widely considered as the next step of peaceful cooperation in space on a global scale. Successful international partnerships to the human exploration of the red planet will benefit each country involved since these cooperation approaches enrich the scientific and technological character of the initiative, allow access to foreign facilities and capabilities, help share the cost and promote national scientific, technological and industrial capabilities. For these reasons, it has the unique potential to be a unifying endeavor that can provide the entire world with the opportunity for mutual achievement and security through shared commitment to a challenging enterprise.

Impact – STEM

Space colonization solves STEM

Siegfried 02 - Integrated Defense Systems at Boeing.

William H.; “Space Colonization—Benefits for the World”; http://www.aiaa.org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/participate/uploads/acf628b.pdf

Problems within the education program in the United States have been analyzed many times. Rising illiteracy, 35% of all scientist and engineers being foreign born, and the 50% or higher foreign doctorate candidates who return to their country of origin after receiving degrees are examples. United States science and engineering schools are recognized throughout the world for their standards of excellence, but the number of United States students is declining based on a decreasing interest by the younger generation in the sciences and engineering. We must encourage young students to select engineering and science for studies as is happening in the rest of the world. Space Colonization can provide that stimulus. During the Apollo program, as NASA spending increased, so, too, did the number of doctorates received (Fig. 3). When NASA spending decreased following the Apollo program, so did the number of doctorates received a few years later (Collins, 2000). This time lag occurred because many students were well on their way to achieving their degrees. Once it was clear that funding and federal support had been reduced, the student population plummeted. We now face the prospect of many of the people trained in the sciences reaching retirement. Where are the replacements? A long-term worldwide commitment to Space Colonization could help. We must convince our present elementary school students to commit to science and engineering for these are the keys to our future.
A mission to mars motivates kids to become scientists and engineers and also creates new technological developments

Choi 11 Charles Q. Choi, Astrobiology Magazine Contributor “ Article: Red Planet for Sale? How Corporate Sponsors Could Send Humans to Mars ” http://www.space.com/10819-mars-private-funding-manned-mission.html ZM

The plan, which the researchers detail in the book, "The Human Mission to Mars: Colonizing the Red Planet," published last December, and specifically the chapter "Marketing Mars: Financing the Human Mission to Mars and the Colonization of the Red Planet", by Rhawn Joseph, suggests that such a project could add 500,000 U.S. jobs over 10 years, boosting the aerospace industry and manufacturing sector. Joseph also quotes Rudy Schild of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, who edited the book along with Levine. Schild said, "A mission to Mars would motivate millions of students to pursue careers in science and technology, thereby providing corporate America with a huge talent pool of tech-savvy young scientists." Schild continued, "Then there are the scientific and technological advances which would directly benefit the American people. Cell phones, GPS devices, and satellite TV owe their existence to the space programs of the 1960s. The technologies which might be invented in support of a human mission to Mars stagger the imagination." "There can be little doubt," Schild told Joseph, "that a human mission to Mars will launch a technological and scientific revolution, create incredible business opportunities for corporate America, the manufacturing sector, and the aerospace industry, and inspire boys and girls across the U.S. to become scientists and engineers."
History [Sputnik] proves that huge space ventures like the plan would reinvigorate STEM

Levine Joel, S. PhD in Atmospheric science from University of MICHIGAN senior research scientist in the Science Directorate of NASA's Langley Research Center. Degrees in physics meteorology Atronomy “ The Exploration of Mars by Humans: Why Mars? Why Humans? ” http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/04/the-exploration-of-mars-by-humans-why-mars-why-humans/237143/

The human mission to Mars is a very exciting and challenging journey. The trip will take about nine months each way with a stay time on the surface of Mars of several hundred days. The long length of the mission will provide an excellent opportunity to engage the public and especially students in elementary and middle school in the mission. Following the launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957, the U.S. and the rest of the world witnessed a significant increase in the numbers of students studying science, technology, engineering and mathematics and entering the STEM professions (I was one of those students). In the U.S., the influx of students in the STEM professions resulted in new STEM-related products and industries, and in enhanced national security and enhanced economic vitality. Unfortunately, the situation has changed significantly in recent times with fewer students studying STEM areas and entering the STEM workforce. It is interesting to note that the new chief education officer at NASA, the associate administrator of education, is former Astronaut Leland Melvin, clearly an excellent role model for students.

Plan is a red flag to American youth to progress towards careers in STEM fields

Zubrin 11 6-28-11 Robert Zubrin masters degree in Aeronautics and Astronautics, a masters degree in Nuclear Engineering, and a Ph.D. in Nuclear Engineering senior engineer with the Martin Marietta Astronautics company, working as one of its leaders in development of advanced concepts for interplanetary missions “ Robert Zubrin on why we should go to Mars ” http://earthsky.org/space/robert-zubrin-on-why-we-should-go-to-mars] ZM

And since the entire history of life on Earth is one of development from simpler forms to more complex forms, displaying greater capacities for activities and intelligence and evermore rapid evolution, if life is everywhere, it means intelligence is everywhere. It means we’re not alone. This is something that thinking men and women have wondered about for thousands of years. It’s worth going there to find out. The second reason is the challenge. I think civilizations are like individuals. We grow when we’re challenged. We stagnate when we’re not. And a humans-to-Mars program would be an embracing challenge for our society, particularly for our youth. It would say to every young person: learn your science and you can be an explorer or pioneer of new worlds. And out of that challenge, we get millions of scientists, engineers, inventors, doctors, medical researchers, technological entrepreneurs. These are the kind of people that drive society forward. You might view it as a tremendously powerful investment in intellectual capital.

A strong domestic STEM workforce is vital to fill defense and aerospace jobs – key to competitiveness and a strong defense industrial base
Stephens, 10 - Senior Vice President, Human Resources and Administration at Boeing and Chair of the Aerospace Industries Association (Richard, Testimony to the House Science and Technology Committee, 2/4, http://www.aia-aerospace.org/assets/Stephens%20Written%20Testimony%202-4-2010(1).pdf)

We are proud to be among those industries that have placed the United States in its leadership role in technology, innovation and the ability to solve highly complex problems. But as both the pace of innovation and the need for problem-solving accelerate globally, the United States faces a competitive gap that we can close only if more of our young people pursue careers in the growing fields of STEM disciplines. In my industry, the Aviation Week 2009 Workforce Study (conducted in cooperation with the Aerospace Industries Association, American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics, and the National Defense Industries Association) indicates aerospace companies that are hiring need systems engineers, aerospace engineers, mechanical engineers, programming/software engineers and program managers. Today, across the aerospace industry, the average age of the workforce continues to increase, and expectations are that approximately 20 percent of our current technical talent will be eligible to retire within the next three years. As a result, in the very near future, our companies and our nation’s aerospace programs will need tens of thousands of engineers—in addition to those joining the workforce today. These are becoming difficult jobs to fill not because there is a labor shortage but because there is a skills shortage: Our industry needs more innovative young scientists, technologists, engineers, and mathematicians to replace our disproportionately large (compared to the total U.S. workforce) population of Baby Boomers as they retire. At the same time that retirements are increasing, the number of American workers with STEM degrees is declining, as the National Science Board pointed out in 2008. This skills shortage is a global concern across the board in all high-tech sectors—public as well as private. But it is especially acute in the U.S. defense industry because many government programs carry security requirements that can be fulfilled only by workers who are U.S. citizens. According to the Aviation Week 2009 Workforce Study, of the positions open in the aerospace and defense industry in 2009, 66.5 percent required U.S. citizenship. Yet only 5 percent of U.S. bachelor’s degrees are in engineering, compared with 20 percent in Asia, for example. Meanwhile, in 2007, foreign students received 4 percent of science and engineering bachelor’s degrees, 24 percent of science and engineering master’s degrees, and 33 percent of science and engineering doctoral degrees awarded in the United States, according to the National Science Board. And most foreign students who earn undergraduate and graduate degrees from U.S. institutions are not eligible for U.S. security clearances. Clearly, the throughput of our U.S. STEM pipeline carries serious implications for our national security, our competitiveness as a nation, and our defense industrial base. Three key actions are necessary to ensure that we have enough scientists and engineers to meet future needs: 1) Successfully graduate all (or at least a lot more of) those who enter colleges and universities; 2) Ensure colleges and universities produce enough qualified secondary teachers for science, math and technology; and 3) Motivate our youth to pursue STEM-related careers that provide great pay, deliver on the promise of challenging and fun work, and create the future
US STEM workforce leadership prevents emergence of hostile rivals.

Freeman 7 – National Bureau of Economic Research, Richard, “Globalization of the Scientific/Engineering Workforce and National Security”, Rand, http://www.rand.org/pubs/conf_proceedings/2007/RAND_CF235.pdf ]

Second is the belief that federal research and development spending, particularly basic R&D in the physical sciences and engineering, has not kept pace with the economic and security needs of the country. If the nation were to demand the number of scientists and engineers that would meet the challenges of the next several decades—in maintaining U.S. comparative advantage in high tech, in meeting national security challenges, in dealing with global warming and energy problems—it would need more scientists and engineers than it currently is producing and importing from overseas. Third is the policy adopted by some agencies and national laboratory projects—for instance the National Security Agency—that projects critical to national security are undertaken solely by U.S. citizens. If the supply of U.S. Ph.D. mathematicians declines, the NSA has a major problem. Proposition 3: Human resource leapfrogging and global competition in high technology. A large part of global trade occurs because countries gain advantages from being the firstmover on new technologies, which require R&D resources, and/or from increasing returns gained through learning as output increases or through positive spillovers from one firm in a sector to another. The north-south version of the trade model postulates that the advanced area (the north) has the skilled workforce and R&D capability to innovate new goods and services, while the less advanced area (the south) cannot compete in these areas (Krugman, 1979). As a result, the north innovates new goods and trades them with the south, which produces older goods as it gains the technology do so. Once the two regions have access to the same technology, the lower-wage south produces the good or service. Workers are paid higher in the north than in the south, both because they are more skilled and because the north has a monopoly on the new products. More rapid technological advance increases wages in the north relative to wages in the south while more rapid diffusion of technology has the opposite effect. In terms of national security, the north’s monopoly on high-tech production guarantees its dominance in military technology. 86 Perspectives on U.S. Competitiveness in Science and Technology The increased supply of scientific and engineering workers, including doctorate researchers and others able to advance scientific and technological knowledge in large developing countries, is outmoding this vision of the division of technology and production between advanced and developing countries. It creates the possibility of human resource leapfrogging, in which large, populous, developing countries employ enough scientists and engineers to compete with the advanced countries in the high-tech vanguard sectors that innovate new products and processes. Loss of comparative advantage in the high-tech sector to a low-wage competitor can substantially harm an advanced country. The advanced country would have to shift resources to less desirable sectors, where productivity growth through learning is likely to be smaller. Wages and living standards would remain high in the advanced country because of its skilled workforce and infrastructure. But the monopoly rents from new products or innovations would shift from the advanced country to the poorer country. The magnitude of the loss would depend in part on the number of persons working in the advanced sector, and their next best alternatives. If the low-wage country were to use its scientists and engineers to take a global lead in space exploration, there would be little impact on the economy of the advanced country. But, if the low-wage country deployed its scientists and engineers to take a global lead in sectors with sizable employment and significant throughput to the rest of the economy, in this case, the economic losses to the advanced country could be substantial. During the Cold War the former Soviet Union devoted its scientific and technological expertise to the military area rather than to economic activity. A low-wage competitor could do the same today, though the Soviet experience suggests that this could be a self-defeating exercise. Real Concerns or Paranoia? Several indicators suggest that human resource leapfrogging is rapidly reducing U.S. technological and economic leadership: Major high-tech firms, from IBM to Cisco to Microsoft, are locating new R&D facilities in China and India, in part because they want to create products for those for markets but also because of the supply of science and engineering talent at wages far below those in the United States. Off-shoring of some forms of skilled work. Indices of technological prowess show a huge improvement in the technological capability of China, in particular (see Figure 1). In 1993 China received a 20.7 measure in the Georgia Tech measure of technology, whereas in 2003 it was at 49.3. Consistent with this, the Georgia Tech group found that China was fourth in the world, after the United States, Japan, and Germany, in publications in four emerging technologies in 1999; the Nanotechnology Research Institute of Japan reported in 2004 that China was third and close behind Japan in publications and patents in this area. Production and exports of high-tech products show that the improved capability of China in high technology is showing in the economy, though many experts believe that the data exaggerate Chinese high-tech production because firms import the highest tech parts or services. • •• • Globalization of the Scientific/Engineering Workforce and National Security 87 Figure 1 Technological Standing Index, United States, Japan, China, 1993–2003 Percent 40 30 20 10 100 0 1996 SOURCE: Graph by Alan Porter in Georgia Tech Technology Policy and Assessment Center (2003). Used with permission. RAND CF235-8.1 United States Japan China 1993 1999 2003 90 80 70 60 50 In sum, research and technological activity and production are moving where the people are, even when they are located in the low-wage “south.” Such research, activity, and production are moving to China because China is graduating huge numbers of scientists and engineers and to India, as well, though more slowly. Implications for National Security Loss of dominance in the supply of scientific and engineering talent and in high-tech production has three implications for U.S. national security: Proposition 4: Foreign countries and groups will have potentially ample supplies of S&E workers for developing high-tech sectors that may be critical for national security. As the number of scientists and engineers working in foreign countries continues to increase, the United States’ comparative advantage in generating scientific and engineering knowledge and in the high-tech sectors and products associated with that knowledge will decline. Increased numbers of scientists and engineers will stimulate the rate of technological advance, expanding the global production possibility frontier, and benefiting people worldwide. But the United States will also face economic difficulties as its technological superiority erodes. The group facing the biggest danger from the loss of America’s technological edge is workers whose living standards depend critically on America’s technological superiority. The big winners from the spread of technology will be workers in developing countries and the firms that employ them, including many U.S. multinational corporations. In the long term, the spread of knowledge and technology around the world will almost certainly outweigh the loss of U.S. hegemony in science and technology, but the transition period is likely to be lengthy and difficult—more formidable than that associated with the recovery of Europe and Japan after World War II. 88 Perspectives on U.S. Competitiveness in Science and Technology In national security, however, the risks to the United States—in the form of more countries with potentially competitive technologies in the military area or more groups with access to possibly dangerous technologies—may outweigh any gains from a more multipolar world in which other leading countries could take on greater responsibilities. The increased supply of S&E specialists overseas and accompanying economic and technological competence will give foreign countries that seek to compete in high-tech military areas the potential resources to do so.
STEM key to job growth

Paulus, 9 – Professor @ North Hennepin Community College (Dr. Eugenia, “STEM Education,” The Star Tribune, http://www.startribune.com/yourvoices/42109707.html?elr=KArksLckD8EQDUoaEyqyP4O:DW3ckUiD3aPc:_Yyc:aUdcOy9cP3DieyckcUsI)
STEM is the acronym for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. Among the disciplines that the National Science Foundation includes under STEM are engineering, mathematics, agricultural sciences, biological sciences, physical sciences, psychology, economics and other natural and social/behavioral sciences, computer science, earth, atmospheric and ocean sciences. 

If you are an educator in science like me, brace yourself for what you will find if you look for data on science education in America collected during the past few years. By the time U.S. students reach their senior year of high school, they rank below their counterparts in 17 other countries in math and science literacy, according to the Third International Mathematics and Science Study, the largest international study of scientific achievement ever conducted.  In physics, U.S. high school seniors scored last among 16 countries tested. The depressing reality is that when it comes to educating the next generation in these subjects, America is no longer a world contender. In fact, U.S. students have fallen far behind their competitors in much of Western Europe and in advanced Asian nations like Japan, India, China and South Korea. Most high school graduates are not adequately prepared for college-level science courses. It is reported that just 26% of the 2003 high school graduates scored high enough on the ACT science test to have a good chance of completing a first-year college science course. That's one reason why enrollments of U.S. students in science and engineering majors have been flat or declining-even as the demand for these skills increases. The U.S. now ranks below 13 other countries in the percentage of 24-year olds with a college degree in these subjects, down from third place 25 years ago. You don't have to be a scientist to recognize that the status quo is a recipe for big trouble. 

This trend has disturbing implications, not just for the future of American technological leadership, but for the broader economy. Already, there is a shortage of highly-skilled workers and a surplus of lesser-skilled workers.
Green initiatives growing and demand for green jobs is inevitable – technical education is key

Hyslop, 8 – Assoc Director of Public Policy @ Association for Career and Technical Education (Alisha, http://www.acteonline.org/uploadedFiles/Publications_and_E-Media/files/files-techniques-2009/Theme_2%281%29.pdf)
High-tech companies like Siemens, Hewlett-Packard, Apple, SunMicrosystems,6 and Subaru Isuzu Automotive7 have launched green initiatives, creating products and processes that conserve energy and resources. Americans purchased more than 330,000 hybrid automobiles in 2007,8 and rental car companies are increasing their fleets of hybrids as well. About 250,000 U.S. homes already have some type of solar energy system, and another 2,500 homeowners have installed their own wind turbine.9Twenty-eight states have mandates generally requiring that up to 25 percent of their energy be obtained through renewable sources in the next two decades.10 This should serve to further increase the demand for new products and processes focused on generating and conserving energy.Growing Workforce NeedsThe demand for sustainability has created two parallel workforce phenomena— the development of new careers in the green industry, such as solar panel installers and wind turbine technicians; and the “greening” of all other jobs. From construction to business management, sustainability issues are growing very important in a number of career pathways. A report commissioned by the American Solar Energy Society attributed 8.5 million jobs in 2006 to renewable energy or energy efficient industries.11 As federal, state and local governments mandate or incentivize more energy from alternative sources, the Apollo Alliance predicts that the nation could generate three to five million more green jobs over the next 10 years.12For example, Randall Swisher, executive director of the American Wind Energy Association, has estimated that by 2030, nearly a half-million new jobs could be created in the wind industry, in manufacturing, construction and operation.13These jobs are high skill, high wage and in high demand. They exist in sectors as diverse as landscaping and automotive manufacturing. Unfortunately, there is a

tremendous shortage of individuals with the necessary skills in sustainability practices, and employers seeking more “green-collar” workers often face bleak prospects. In many instances, while the technologies to support the sustainability industry have been or are being created, the industry lacks the skilled workforce necessary to implement and use these technologies. To some capacity, the need for human capital is proving to be a barrier to the continued growth and expansion in energy efficiency and sustainability. As the San Francisco Chronicle reported after a summit on green-collar jobs, “California’s new green tech economy won’t get very far if the state doesn’t develop the workforce that eco-friendly businesses need.” California already lacks enough solar panel installers, and needs more workers with experience in green building Many jobs in green industries use the same technical skills as existing industries, but with skilled-worker shortages in areas like engineering, manufacturing and construction technology, the new jobs often lack qualified applicants. For example, the demand to make buildings more energy efficient increases the need for insulation workers, carpenters, roofers, building inspectors, construction managers and electricians.15 The sustainability industry has the power to dramatically revive employment in many areas around the country as green-collar careers can replace the jobs of workers in areas with stagnant job growth or layoffs. However, there must be a greater focus by policymakers and business and industry leaders on providing the training and retraining necessary to help shape this new workforce and ensure the continued pipeline of skilled workers. CTE Provides Solutions Career and technical education (CTE) programs are poised and ready to ease the workforce bottleneck that could limit job growth in sustainability and meet the need for green-collar job training across career areas. Despite the fact that the term “sustainability” has only been around for two decades, and mainstream public interest has only recently peaked, high-quality CTE programs already exist around the country to help prepare students for sustainable careers. Community and political leaders, along with local business and industries, should look to CTE programs as the answer to this workforce challenge, and aim to invest in and expand these programs and opportunities so that even more students can participate. CTE programs are flexible and responsive to economic and workforce needs, placing CTE offers early exposure to students regarding sustainable energy career options through curriculum integration, provides the “cutting edge” training necessary to ensure future employees meet workforce pipeline needs, and sets an example through state-of-the-art green buildings that become part of the curriculum. Exposing Students to Green CurriculumToday’s CTE is becoming more rigorous in response to the growing skill needs in the current economy, and at the same time remains extremely relevant to students and their lives. Often organized around 16 career clusters, such as “Agriculture, Food, and Natural Resources” and “Manufacturing,” with more specific programs of study that link secondary and postsecondary coursework, CTE offers unique opportunities for students to explore career options at the same time they are receiving the strong academic foundation necessary to succeed in the 21st century economy. CTE has often been turned to as the answer as policymakers around the country examine ways to reform high schools and help more students earn high school diplomas and transition to postsecondary education. It is also the answer to ensuring that students gain the sustainability knowledge they need to be successful in whatever career they may choose, and that students are exposed to careers in sustainability early enough to consider them as future options. For example, leaders of California’s State Building and Construction Trades Council think the state needs more CTE in high schools. Jay Hansen, legislative and political director, said, “We’re not going to be able to build anything and do any green retrofits until we have a workforce to do that. If we wait until they’re out of high school to start training them, we’re going to lose a lot of people.”21 Hansen’s comments point to the need to expose students to careers in green areas early in their educational experience. A number of high schools have started to offer this type of exploration and integration of sustainability concepts. California’s Lake Tahoe Unified